Status Characteristics and Performance Expectations: A Reformulation

Status characteristics theory predicts the emergence and structure of power and prestige orders in task groups from members' status attributes. This paper argues that application of the burden of proof assumption, central to the theory, is inconsistent with a key concept, generalized expectation state. A reformulation is proposed that eliminates the inconsistency and gives competing predictions for a wide range of situations. The reformulation predicts that, when not directly relevant to task performance, specific characteristics (e.g., athletic or analytical ability) have less impact than diffuse characteristics (race, gender, or education) on performance expectations. The original formulation predicts equal effects. Critical tests are proposed and the paper concludes with additional comparisons of the two formulations on the grounds of parsimony and implications for intervention in settings characterized by status-based inequalities.     

The Estimation of Task Performance and Reward Recommendations as a Function of Status Ranks

Abstract

A recurrent concern among social psychologists is to determine how individuals react to status ranks of others. This study presented 144 college students with a hypothetical situation and asked them to recommend an reward allocation to a person in the situation and to estimate that person's future task performance. Subjects were presented with information about either a diffuse status characteristic (educational level), or specific status characteristic with task relevance (performance on a related task), or both for an individual in comparison to a standard comparison other. When information was available on only one status rank, rewards were allocated and task performance estimated consistent with the single status rank. When information about both status ranks were available, specific status significantly affected both the reward distribution and performance expectations, while diffuse status significantly affected the reward distribution and had a marginally significant effect on performance expectations. The results are discussed in terms of status expectancy theory (Berger et al.), Kimberly's modification and extension of that approach, and equity theory (Adams).     

Exploring Dimensions of Racism,Homophobia, and Social Network As Concomitant Predictors of Condom Use in a Sample of Black MSM

With a convenience sample of 148 Black men who have sex with men (MSM) who primarily resided in the Washington, District of Columbia, metropolitan Area, the purpose of this research was to concomitantly use dimensions of racism, homophobia, and social network constructs in a regression model to predict condom use. In the model, analysis indicated that condom nonusers versus consistent users experienced more conversations with friends regarding salient topics (i.e., HIV status) (odds ratio [OR] = .86, p < .01) and fewer discussions with sexual partners about salient topics (OR = .77, p = .02). Furthermore, inconsistent condom users versus consistent users experienced higher levels of internalized homophobia (OR = 1.12, p = .04) and less racism associated with physical characteristics (OR = .89, p = .04). Notably, all of the racism dimensions identified in this research were nonsignificant as positive predictors of condom use. Overall, based on the findings, internalized homophobia may need to be isolated or targeted as an HIV-risk factor when implementing individual- and group-level HIV-prevention strategies for Black MSM. Moreover, improved communication skills among Black MSM pertaining to discussing salient topics (i.e., HIV status) with their sexual partners could also be used as a possible HIV-prevention strategy.     

The Listener as Addressee in Face-to-Face Dialogue

Face-to-face conversation is a unique listening setting, with a particular kind of listener; the person the speaker is directly addressing is the addressee. Our research program has included several experiments involving detailed, reliable examinations of the subtle yet crucial behaviors that addressees use to collaborate with the speaker in face-to-face dialogue. We have found that addressees respond to speakers using either generic back channels (e.g., “m-hm” or nodding) or responses that specify what the addressee has understood (e.g., opening eyes wide to show surprise). Addressees timed these specific responses to precise moments in the speaker's narrative, and they tailored their responses to that moment (e.g., wincing when the speaker described something painful). Distracting addressees with a task that prevented them from following the speakers' narratives made these addressees unable to contribute specific responses, which, in turn, had a deleterious effect on the speakers' storytelling. Further research showed that addressees who were not distracted used a wide variety of behaviors to contribute to dialogue without interrupting the speaker, such as brief vocalizations, facial displays, and even gestures. Speakers and addressees regulated the timing of addressee responses using an interactive pattern of gaze. Addressees also indicated understanding by their formulations, which summarized or paraphrased what the speaker had said. However, our analysis showed that these formulations were not neutral. The analysis of addressees in face-to-face dialogue generates a deeper understanding of the listening process and has implications for listening in applied settings, such as psychotherapy or health care interactions.     

Does injustice reduce cognitive performance? An experimental test / ¿Provoca la injusticia una disminución en el rendimiento cognitivo? Una prueba empírica

In this paper we report two experimental studies showing for the first time that injustice causes a reduction in cognitive performance in complex tasks. The two experiments (Study 1, n = 106, Study 2, n = 90) used two different paradigms. In Study 1 participants were exposed to injustice happening to other people. In Study 2 participants themselves were the targets of injustice. In both studies the dependent variable was cognitive performance in a complex task. Specifically, in Study 1, participants solved anagrams, and in Study 2, they solved several Raven matrices. The dependent measures were the number of anagrams and Raven matrices solved correctly. We found that cognitive performance was worse in the unjust condition compared to the just condition (i.e., fewer items solved correctly). These results imply that unfairness in everyday life may have a deleterious effect on individuals’ capacity to think in a complex way. Possible mediators for this effect are proposed.     

The Treatment of Relationship Status in Research on Dating and Mate Selection

The relationship status of study participants (e.g., daters, cohabitors, marrieds, or unmarrieds) has implications for understanding dating and mate selection. Procedures used in studies may blur or ignore status distinctions. The authors examined methods used in 791 studies published from 1991 – 2001. Most commonly, status of participants is unspecified, and different statuses are collapsed for analysis. Status of participants is associated with recruitment method, and type (e.g., romantic, friendship) and form (e.g., perceived, current) of relationship measured. Unspecified samples are associated with research on the topics of universal properties or causal conditions, and specified samples with mate selection. The connection between status and topic is becoming more blurred over time. Recommendations for studying and reporting status are provided.     

Limiting distributions for continuous state Markov voting models

This paper proves the existence of a stationary distribution for a class of Markov voting models. We assume that alternatives to replace the current status quo arise probabilistically, with the probability distribution at time t+1 having support set equal to the set of alternatives that defeat, according to some voting rule, the current status quo at time t. When preferences are based on Euclidean distance, it is shown that for a wide class of voting rules, a limiting distribution exists. For the special case of majority rule, not only does a limiting distribution always exist, but we obtain bounds for the concentration of the limiting distribution around a centrally located set. The implications are that under Markov voting models, small deviations from the conditions for a core point will still leave the limiting distribution quite concentrated around a generalized median point. Even though the majority relation is totally cyclic in such situations, our results show that such chaos is not probabilistically significant.We acknowledge the support of NSF Grants #SOC79-21588, SES-8106215 and SES-8106212.     

Status Inconsistency: Its Objective and Subjective Components*

Sociologists need to recognize the distinction between objective and subjective status inconsistency. Objective inconsistency may be defined in terms of an arbitrary manipulation of an individual's status ranks, or it may be defined in terms of the normative expectations linking together the various status dimensions. Subjective inconsistency, on the other hand, involves asking the respondent to decide for himself whether or not he is inconsistent. When objective inconsistency is defined in terms of arbitrary mathematical manipulations, the relationship between these two components of inconsistency (i.e., objective and subjective) is basically an empirical question. However, when objective inconsistency is defined in terms of the normative expectations in a population, and when the respondent shares these expectations, we propose that these two components of inconsistency will be identical. Conversely, they will not be identical when the respondent does not share these expectations. Finally, the implications of defining inconsistency in terms of normative expectations are explored.     

Positive and negative intergroup contact in school and out-of-school contexts: A longitudinal approach to spillover effects

This study aims to tackle positive and negative intergroup contact in school and out-of-school contexts to test whether a spillover effect (i.e., the extent to which experiences that individuals have in one context spill over into another) applies to intergroup contact. Participants were 984 adolescents (M_age = 14.66; 62.7% female; 24.8% ethnic minority). Results indicated that positive contact in school was related over time to higher positive contact in out-of-school contexts and vice versa (i.e., valence consistent spillover effect). Positive contact in school was linked over time to lower negative contact in out-of-school contexts (i.e., valence inconsistent spillover effect). Overall, this study provides novel insights into the transmission of adolescents' intergroup contact across socialization contexts by emphasizing the leading role of positive contact in schools.     

Economics students need not be greedy: Fairness and the ultimatum game

Following Adam Smith, conventional economics gives self-interest the primary role of all economic behavior. However, past experiments with the ultimatum game often produce outcomes inconsistent with this orthodox conception of ‘economic man.’ In our replication of the ultimatum experiment, students at a small, liberal arts college do not allocate monetary rewards in a self-interested manner, but rather their choices conform with the social norm of ‘fairness’ (i.e., a 50/50 split). Contrary to past research, we find that economic majors are less motivated by self-interest than other students.     

When being overpaid makes me feel good about myself: It depends on how the other feels

The present research examined whether the emotions of others (i.e., disappointment versus happiness with respect to a received outcome) influence own self-esteem when being overpaid. Results from two experiments demonstrated that participants reported higher performance self-esteem when the other expressed happiness rather than disappointment. This effect was only found in the condition where one was overpaid relative to the condition where one did not yet know one’s own outcome. In the second experimental study we further found that this interaction between the emotion of the other and the distribution situation only emerged among participants low (relative to high) in personal need for structure. Implications with respect to the relationship between overpayment and self-esteem and the interpersonal effects of emotions in this process are discussed.     

The Leveraging Effect of Supervisory Competencies Towards the Performance in Indian Manufacturing Group: A Structural Equation Modelling Approach

The quick pace of technological changes, market and industry changes, demographic composition change and society changes requires that human resource managers should revitalize their proficiencies to go with these new challenges. The manager who is a liaison in the organizational hierarchy does a very important job in the organization to direct and channel the employee cluster towards its organization goal, and ensure that each member of the team should be dynamic and prolific. The study on supervisory competency analysis is a crucial and fundamental requirement for any organization. The current study ‘The leveraging effect of Supervisory competencies towards the performance in Indian manufacturing group’ is based on primary data collected from one hundred and fifty employees working in a paper manufacturing industry. The data collected were analysed using SPSS and SMART PLS software. The results of the study revealed that the impact of supervisory competencies towards his performance is huge which accounts to 81% (R²?=?0.810) and towards the growth of whole organization is 35% (R²?=?0.356). This implies that if the supervisory level employees are competent enough by possessing certain competencies, his individual performance will do extreme wonders and will create a strong bond between him and the organization and also create an impact on organization growth by clear strategy formulation, creating committed workforce, developing the organization as learning organization and stimulating individual and group productivity.     

Anxiety and Depression: Implications for Older Adults

By the year 2030, it is projected that one in every three Americans will be 55-years-old or older. This age group is by far the fastest growing segment of the population. With the growing number of older adults, the importance of understanding aging and common disorders of later life is essential. In particular, anxiety and depression are among the most common problems in older adults. However, differentiating anxiety and depression at the mood, symptom, and syndromal levels has been a long-standing problem in psychopathology research. In addition to a growing need for research, clinicians will also need to take an active role in the development and implementation of treatment as the population of older adults increases. In particular, mental health service providers must become informed about the economic implications for older adults as the structure of health insurance continues to change.     

Anxiety and Depression: Implications for Older Adults

By the year 2030, it is projected that one in every three Americans will be 55-years-old or older. This age group is by far thefastest growing segment of the population. With the growing number of older adults, the importance of understanding aging and common disorders of laterlife is essential. In particular, anxiety anddepression are among the most common problems in older adults. However, differentiating anxiety and depression at the mood, symptom, and syndromal levels has been a long-standing problem in psychopathology research. In addition to a growing need for research, clinicians will also need to take an active role in the development and implementation of treatment as the population of older adults increases. In particular, mental health service providers must become informed about the economic implications for older adults as the structure of health insurance continues to change.     

Exploratory Evaluation of a School-Based Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Program

Internationally, efficacy studies of school-based child sexual abuse prevention programs display a series of methodological shortcomings. Few studies include adolescent participants, recording of disclosures has been inconsistent, and no studies to date have assessed presenter adherence to program protocols or summated the costs of program implementation. A pretest–posttest waitlist control design was used to evaluate the Tweenees program delivered to grade 6 (n?=?88) and grade 7/8 students (n?=?117) compared to a control (n?=?185). Outcome measures included a knowledge/skills questionnaire, systematic coding of disclosures, and video interaction analysis of lessons. Costs were calculated per student, class, and school. Adolescents made small knowledge and skills gains indicating a program ceiling effect. Implementation analysis suggests low levels of adult control facilitated disclosures. Program costs were relatively inexpensive. Recommendations are made for future research.     

The Relative Salience of Physiognomic Cues in Differentiating Faces: A Methodological Tool

This research utilized a novel methodology to explore the relative salience of facial cues to age, sex, race, and emotion in differentiating faces. Inspired by the Stroop interference effect, participants viewed pairs of schematic faces on a computer that differed simultaneously along two facial dimensions (e.g., race and age) and were prompted to make similarity judgments about the faces along one of the dimensions (e.g., race). On a second round of trials, judgments were made along the other dimension (e.g., age). Analysis of response speed and accuracy revealed that participants judged the race of the faces more quickly and with fewer errors compared to their age, gender, or emotional expression. Methodological and theoretical implications for studying the role of facial cues in social perception are discussed.     

Issuing and Responding to Unusual Questions: A Conversation Analytic Account of Tom Andersen's Therapeutic Practice

Tom Andersen is considered one of the key contributors to the development of postmodern practice. Little is known, however, about the ways in which his ideas and practices are routinely carried out in situ. We used Conversation Analysis (CA) to investigate a session of couple therapy facilitated by Andersen. We show how Andersen and client participants oriented to and addressed problems of understanding that occurred between them. The source of this trouble was Andersen's use of unusual question formulations. We offer preliminary evidence that such unusual formulations served particular interactional and institutional (i.e., therapeutic) functions in their local contexts of use. We conclude by considering some implications of this analysis—and of conversation analytic inquiry more generally—for the practice of family therapy.     

Under the skin: Exploring 2-month-olds' thermal reactions in different social interactions with mother and stranger

Physiological adaptations to external stressors can reveal socio-cognitive health in infancy. With the use of thermal imaging and behavioural analyses, the current study examined the arousal markers accompanying infants’ interactions with a familiar and an unfamiliar person. To address the current research question, the mother and a complete stranger interacted with 2 to 3 month-old infants (N= 10, 2 boys)in three different conditions: Neutral, Play, and Compliment. Behavioral analyses showed that overall gaze was longer to the Stranger compared to the Mother independent of condition. Physiological findings showed that skin temperature was significantly higher with the stranger independent of condition. The regions of the face that passed the significance threshold included the maxillary area, the nose, and the forehead. Both behavioral and physiological findings emphasize the ability of the infant to distinguish between a familiar and an unfamiliar person. Most importantly, however thermal imaging has proven to be a promising tool in physiologically differentiating between variable social conditions in very young infants opening up a new experimental portal for identifying healthy physiological development.     

The New Normal1

The Great Recession has caused many Americans to reevaluate their consumption‐rich way of life. In response to the shrinking economy, they have spent less, saved more, and simplified their lives. This essay asks whether people will seek a return to their prerecession lifestyles—in particular a return to making the acquisition and consumption of consumer goods a major source of meaning and contentment—as soon as their economic condition allows or whether they will make their more austere lives their “new normal.” It evaluates existing research on contentment and suggests that if instead of choosing to return to their “old normal,” Americans learn to derive satisfaction from nonconsumerist sources, in particular social relations and transcendental activities (i.e., religious, contemplative, and cultural activities), they may find the new normal quite acceptable.