Expertise: Between the Scylla of certainty and the new age charybdis

Scientists should be seen as expert advisors rather than producers of certainty. The progress of scientific controversies shows both why this is the case, and why it is so little understood. Those very close to the research front are aware of the many points at which experimental procedures and theoretical arguments could be wrong. They understand the ‘expert’ quality of their conclusions. Those further distanced from the research front are unaware of the immense complexity of the research and, consequently, are more certain of the truth of science.

That scientific results are less conclusive than they are generally taken to be does not mean that ‘anything goes’. There is a difference between experts and non‐experts; it is just that experts should not be expected to agree. Scientific controversies rarely end; it is usual to find equally well qualified experts on both sides of a scientific debate long after a view has been reached throughout the larger part of the scientific community.     

突发性群体事件中舆情信息的汇集与分析

“舆情”为研究突发性群体事件提供了一个崭新视角。党的十六届四中全会要求建立健全舆情信息汇集和分析机制,这对研究突发性群体事件有着重要的指导意义。突发性群体事件中的舆情汇集工作,不仅要明确获取舆情的基本渠道,还要密切关注在突发性群体事件发生和发展的各个阶段,舆情可能表现出的各种具体形态。在此基础上,采用现代化信息手段对舆情信息进行筛选、分析和加工,以辅助相关决策工作。     

Research as a Social Process

The activity of social research has been much discussed in recent years. It is examined here as a social process, with special attention to the participation of different groups of people. Four modes of doing research are identified. The framework accommodates and shows close relationships between established modes of research which generally have been seen to be substantially different. At the same time it includes modes which are more participatory in character and which have important implications for undertaking research, the development of theory, and the functioning of social groups, including society.     

Ethical consideration of the research proposal and the informed-consent process: An online survey of researchers and ethics committee members in Thailand

Researchers designing and conducting studies using human data should consider the values and principles of ethical conduct. Research ethics committees (RECs) typically evaluate the ethical acceptability of research proposals. Sometimes, differences arise between how researchers and RECs interpret ethical principles, and how they decide what constitutes ethical conduct. This study aimed to explore the opinions of these two groups about the importance of core ethical issues in the proposal and in the informed-consent process. An anonymous online questionnaire was distributed to a target population in health-related academic/research institutes across Thailand; 219 researchers and 72 REC members participated. Significantly, more REC members than researchers attributed the highest importance to three core ethical considerations – risk/benefit, vulnerability, and confidentiality/privacy. For the informed-consent process, significant differences were found for communication of risks, decision-making authority for consent, process for approaching study participants, and availability of a contact for study deviations/violations. The different ratings indicate differences in the groups’ perspectives on ethical principles, which may affect focal congruence on ethical issues in the proposal. Communication of these findings should help close gaps between REC and researcher perceptions. Further study should investigate how RECs and researchers perceive equivocal ethics terms.     

减少砍伐和退化所致排放量（REDD＋）机制国内外研究新进展

减少砍伐和退化所致排放量（简称REDD＋）机制作为目前最可行的减排措施，可帮助中国以较低成本减少碳排放。对于REDD＋的研究，学者们主要沿着四条线索展开：一是评估REDD＋对于减缓气候变化的影响，二是研究激励机制对毁林行为的影响以及REDD＋对毁林行为的影响机制，三是分别从环境服务付费机制和原住民利益保护的视角研究REDD＋实施过程中的权力平等性问题，四是研究REDD＋的政策效果评估和实施策略。未来，应深化评估REDD＋对中国减缓气候变化影响的研究，分析REDD＋实施后所产生的毁林行为减缓效应背后的传导路径，研究定量评估方法，考察REDD＋权利平等性和REDD＋的政策实施效果。     

资源环境与经济发展

人与自然的关系 ,是新世纪经济研究的主题。经济发展和资源环境 ,自始至终就有非常密切的关系。资源环境作为生产因素 ,各种成分不断转化为使用价值和价值 ;作为消费因素 ,又是人类赖以生存和发展的场所或空间。资源环境的有限性和经济发展的无限性经常会产生矛盾 ,人类如何协调这种矛盾 ,是我们面临的重要任务。     

Students and the Consumer Credit Market: Towards a Social Policy Agenda

The rise in access to complex consumer credit arrangements has taken place against a backdrop of a call for increased individual responsibility. Consumers are required to behave in a way which recognizes both their rights and responsibilities. But how much responsibility should they be expected to shoulder in critical areas of complex choice? Students represent a particular group of novice, sometimes vulnerable and often targeted consumers, who may display limited financial capability and responsibility. In addition to arguments for a more nuanced understanding of individual responsibility in different environments, the role of commercial agents and their marketing practices, which can have major implications for social policy, should also be considered. From the perspective of both students and relevant agencies and organizations, this article examines the nature, role and limitations of individual responsibility in managing credit and debt. While the social and economic system confers rights on lenders, their responsibility in marketing remains limited. It is argued that a framework for more responsible marketing of credit is a critical element of social policy acting as a bridge between individual responsibility and regulation. Qualitative research is used to illustrate the argument for marketing's social responsibility from the point of view of students entering credit arrangements to meet short‐term needs but with long‐term implications.     

课间圈养问题探析

课间圈养日渐成为一种普遍的教育问题。这一问题的产生有两个重要原因，一是自我保存的时代精神对教育的规约，二是中国实施的独生子女政策。这一普遍的教育问题产生了较为严重的教育后果：课间圈养限制了学生好动的天性，不利于其身心健康以及未来的自我保护；课间圈养阻断了孩子与自然的亲密接触，使其无法习得在与自然的交往中产生的直观的安全知识以及丰富的生命体验；课间圈养阻碍了教师教育教学活动的顺利展开，阻碍了教师教育责任的真正履行。走出课间圈养，需要从两个方面入手：一是从根本上确立和落实玩的规则，明确规则的性质、制定规则的主体以及落实措施；二是建立并完善相应的法律法规及保险制度。     

From closed ranks to open doors: Elaine and John Cummings' mental health education experiment in 1950s Saskatchewan

During late 1951 and early 1952, married couple, social biologist Elaine Cumming and psychiatrist John Cumming, led a mental health education experiment in Indian Head, Saskatchewan. The study, which was intended to inform strategies toward deinstitutionalization, sought to determine if attitudes regarding mental illness could be changed through commonly used educational practices. It was shaped by the shared interests of powerful philanthropic, charitable, psychiatric, academic and governmental bodies to create healthier citizens and a stronger democratic nation through expert knowledge. However, in addition to the disappointing findings indicating that attitudes remained unchanged, the town appeared to close ranks against the research team. Nonetheless, the Cummings' later association with sociologists at Harvard University enabled them to interpret the results in a way that lent the study credibility and themselves legitimacy, thus opening the door to their careers as very successful researchers and policy-makers.     

Managing the science in the presence of financial conflict of interest

ABSTRACT

We consider the question of why (primarily) and how (secondarily) to perform scientific oversight of research performed by investigators with a financial conflict of interest (COI). One way to frame the trade-off of having investigators with financial COI participate in research is through a decision rule: “Our institution is willing for financially conflicted investigators to participate in research around their intellectual property if (a) the science is likely to be significantly better with their participation (or if other significant benefits accrue); and (b) the COI can be adequately managed”.

A key component of COI management is the demonstration that the underlying science is sufficiently rigorous and transparent, and in turn, a scientific oversight plan is a key element of that demonstration. Scientific oversight plans should be proactively generated, by individuals (i.e., scientific reviewers) who are independent and expert, and they should assess the rigor and transparency of the research, in a fashion which is fair and efficient.

Abbreviations: COI: conflict of interest; SOP: scientific oversight plan     

Reactions to research participation in vulnerable subgroups

This paper describes the extent to which vulnerable individuals (defined by economic, social, psychological, physical health, and child maltreatment status) react to research participation. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study, participants (N=896) completed a lengthy and intrusive in-person interview and provided a small amount of blood through finger pricks. At the end of the interview, participants were asked eight questions about their reactions to the research experience. Vulnerable individuals in general agreed more strongly about having an emotional reaction, but were not less willing to continue to participate. In addition, psychologically vulnerable individuals more strongly agreed they would continue to participate, were treated with respect and dignity, and found their participation meaningful. Compared to whites, nonwhites reported stronger agreement about the meaningfulness of the research and the belief that their responses would be kept private. Like others, individuals vulnerable by virtue of their prisoner status or homelessness (past or current) agreed more strongly about having an emotional reaction to the interview, but otherwise did not differ in their reactions. These results suggest that researchers and institutional review boards should not be deterred from conducting research on sensitive topics with potentially vulnerable populations.     

Canadian policy on reporting breaches of research integrity: When should Research Ethics Boards be informed?

ABSTRACT

In Canada, institutions that receive research funding from the three federal granting agencies must establish research ethics boards (REBs) to review the ethical acceptability of research involving humans. Institutions are also expected to promote the responsible conduct of research, fostering researchers’ abilities to act with integrity in the conduct of their research. Where a researcher fails to act with integrity in research with humans, institutional policies and procedures of the U15, Canada’s most research-intensive universities, vary in the extent to which they involve their REBs in response to such breaches. Some make no mention of the REB, whereas others state that their REB should be provided with information relating to upheld allegations. In this paper, we argue that when allegations of research integrity breaches are corroborated, the institution’s REB should be identified as a party required to receive that information. Only then can REBs ensure compliance with research ethics standards, which is essential to maintain the public’s trust.     

新诗解读方法说略

若想建构新诗解读理论,使自发阅读上升为自觉鉴赏,应该确立历史主义的态度与立场;把握新诗的艺术个性,破译其隐显适度的意象密码,品味其体现情绪律动的自由化语言,掌握其诗情哲思化的艺术趋势,进行有针对性的阅读;同时要多向拓展研究方法,如引进比较法、整体阅读与细读统一、进行创造性的“悟”读等,从而贴近文本实质。     

Reactions to Research Participation in Vulnerable Subgroups

This paper describes the extent to which vulnerable individuals (defined by economic, social, psychological, physical health, and child maltreatment status) react to research participation. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study, participants (N = 896) completed a lengthy and intrusive in-person interview and provided a small amount of blood through finger pricks. At the end of the interview, participants were asked eight questions about their reactions to the research experience. Vulnerable individuals in general agreed more strongly about having an emotional reaction, but were not less willing to continue to participate. In addition, psychologically vulnerable individuals more strongly agreed they would continue to participate, were treated with respect and dignity, and found their participation meaningful. Compared to whites, nonwhites reported stronger agreement about the meaningfulness of the research and the belief that their responses would be kept private. Like others, individuals vulnerable by virtue of their prisoner status or homelessness (past or current) agreed more strongly about having an emotional reaction to the interview, but otherwise did not differ in their reactions. These results suggest that researchers and institutional review boards should not be deterred from conducting research on sensitive topics with potentially vulnerable populations.     

The Psychologic of Implication

This paper is a preliminary inquiry into the nature of implication; how things are seen as 'going together' or following one from another. The argument presented here is that implication is non-logical and is central to the routine process of reason, induction and generalization. The organizing force underlying implication and practical inference is argued to be Von Domarus' Principle (VDP), by which similarity on some dimension of interest 'carries over' to some other dimension of interest.
One major difficulty with this formulation is that where VDP is the only organizing force, incoherent utterances resembling the word salad of the schizophrenic are likely to result, quite a departure from the routine utterances of normals that a useful model should generate. Two important ways that normal speech and word salad differ are that, in the latter, associations are, first, often implausible or bizarre, and second, they are likely to be so personalistic as to be virtually inaccessible to others.
These considerations led to a search for elements that would provide the corrections necessary to bring the products of a VDP based model of implication close to normal utterances in these two areas. One element that appears central, concerns the role of subjective probability in evaluating plausibility of associations. Also considered are aspects of ambiguities in ordinary language especially concerning number and probability. The problem of making associations accessible to others is mitigated by providing elements in the setting or the communication itself that act to highlight or salience the association intended to be communicated. Finally, suggestions for further research are presented.     

技术现代性与社会技术创新——关于技术现代性问题的哲学思考

技术现代性问题是我们这个时代需要关注并解决的一个焦点问题。技术现代性不是一个静态的概念,而是一种动态过程,对技术现代性的考察应从发展的角度来衡量。技术现代化的过程和社会技术创新紧密相关,正确认识及评价技术现代性和社会技术创新的辩证关系,对我们如何选择现代化道路有着重要的认识论意义。认真反思技术现代性问题,有利于我们制定科学、合理的发展规划。     

Yes Minister: Reviewing the 'Looking After Children' Experience and Identifying the Messages for Social Work Research

Correspondence to Paul Michael Garrett, Centre for Social Work, School of Sociology and Social Policy, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK. E-mail: paul.garrett{at}nottingham.ac.uk Summary The heavily promoted Looking After Children: Good Parenting,Good Outcomes (LAC) project continues to exert a powerful influenceon social work in the UK and elsewhere. Despite the repeatedassertions that the documentation associated with LAC is embeddedin ‘objective’ research, this not sustainable onaccount of the failure of the researchers to interrogate theirown normative assumptions and judgements. Specific criticismscan also be levelled at the ‘community study’ connectedto the evolution of the Action and Assessment Records (AARs)which are the key part of the scheme. The system should alsobe viewed in the context of wider pre-occupations about ‘outcomes’.In addition, the project needs to be politically situated andthe researchers' relationship with the Department of Healthshould be more fully explored. In conclusion, it is suggestedthat the LAC experience contains important ‘messages’for the future of social work research.     

企业并购绩效研究现状分析

在我国这样一个新兴的资本市场 ,关于企业并购绩效存在很多的争论。要更加重视我国上市公司并购进行绩效研究的意义 ,界定并购和其他相关概念 ,明确并购绩效研究的范畴、类别和层次。目前 ,国内外学术界对并购绩效研究方法主要是超额收益率法和财务数据法 ,因为数据、方法和评价指标的不同 ,很多学者从不同的方面提出很多的观点。我国企业并购绩效研究存在很多问题 ,应明确研究发展的方向 ,提高我国的企业并购绩效的研究水平。     

Adverse events reporting--the tip of an iceberg

NIH data indicate that annually seven million human subjects are enrolled in research sponsored by NIH alone. In addition, there are sixteen federal agencies and numerous departments outside NIH conducting experiments with human subjects. Moreover, the pharmaceutical industry spends $26 billion on research (compared to $16 billion for NIH), thus, the total number of human subjects enrolled in research for both the public and private sectors can be estimated as high as nineteen million. I present data on the potential magnitude of adverse events in the United States among human subjects enrolled in research that appear to be unreported and unaccounted for. We obtained data from the Office for Human Research Protections (OHRP) through the Freedom of Information Act for the years 1990 to August 2000 regarding all Institutional Incident Reports (IRPTs) and a list of Compliance Oversight Branch Investigations (COBIs) involving Multiple Project Assurances (MPAs). In the ten years of reporting for nearly seventy million human subjects, there were only 878 IRPTs and 41 investigations. From the incident reports to OHRP, 44% involved adverse events. Those projects investigated for Multiple Project Assurances violations (41 such investigations) showed that 51% were suspended or terminated. The number of deaths reported to OHRP in ten years for the seventy million human subjects is merely eight. The anticipated number of deaths among the general population in seventy million (assuming subject's duration in trials is one month) is 51,000. The number of suicides and attempted suicides alone among the seventy million expected research subjects can be anticipated to be about 5,000. Therefore, the number of expected deaths should have been between 5,000 and 51,000. These numbers and percentages represent minimal numbers since they are not a result of random audits or investigations, but a result of self-reporting or an exogenous complaint. Despite the fact that these are conservative estimates, they represent a significant problem. The purpose of this paper is to present the potential boundaries and magnitude of the problem in the current use of human subjects in research. This is a call for responsible institutions to undertake a thorough evaluation of the problem in order to obtain accurate information. For the immediate future, strong actions need to be taken to increase the protection of human subjects enrolled in research. This precautionary policy is prudent in light of recent revelations and data from this investigation.     

Applications of Reward Structures in Social Group Work

Group reward structures have been found to provide social workers with effective procedures for sustaining changes made by group members. This paper provides a review of the literature on reward structures in an effort to determine which work best with clients in sustaining changes they make in a group context. The pros and cons of individual and group reward structures are discussed and six principles to increase success are identified: (1) appropriate behavior must be reinforced; (2) reinforcers must be available to all members, but not too easily available; (3) reinforcers should be delivered close in time to the occurrence of Lhe behavior they reinforce; (4) reinforcers must be consistent in their application; (5) reinforcers must be appropriate to the chosen behavioral change; and (6) there must be a pattern of consistent reinforcement by significant others in a person's environment.