Varieties of Field Theory and the Sociology of the Non‐profit Sector

This paper reviews the use of field theory in the sociological study of the non‐profit sector. The review first shows how field theory, as a conceptual framework to explain social action, provides a valuable sociological counterweight to prevailing economic and psychological orientations in the interdisciplinary scholarship on the non‐profit sector. However, despite its certain shared assumptions, field theory in sociology encompasses three distinct, albeit interrelated, approaches: the Bourdieusian, New Institutionalist, and Strategic Action Fields perspectives. I comparatively outline the key analytical assumptions and causal claims of each version of field theory, whether and how it recognizes the specificity of the non‐profit sector and then delineate its application by sociologists to the non‐profit sector. I show how scholars' employment of each articulation of field theory to study non‐profit activity has been influenced by pre‐existing scholarly assumptions and normative claims about this third space. The article concludes by summarizing the use of these varieties of field theory in the sociology of the non‐profit sector and by identifying future directions in this line of research.     

The Evolution of Male-Male Sexual Behavior in Humans

Abstract

This paper examines male-male sexual behavior from an evolutionary perspective. I begin with a discussion of the major difficulties associated with the scientific study of homosexuality and a clarification of some concepts in human sexuality and evolutionary psychology. Following is a presentation of several established evolutionary theories of homosexuality and a critique of their major assumptions. Based on common patterns of male-male sexual behavior in humans identified by anthropologists, I argue that the evolutionary origin of male-male sexual behavior is based on the same dominance-submission mechanisms that gave rise to male-female sexual behavior. Further, I argue that male-male sexual behavior evolved more fully in human males than in other primate males because male-male alliances played a greater role in human male reproductive success. Specifically, male-male sexual behavior is speculated to be an exaptation of the sociosexual behavior used by primates to establish, regulate, and maintain relationships. It is posited that same-sex sexual behavior in human males reinforced alliances that contributed directly to male survival and indirectly to male reproduction. This alliance theory of the evolution of male-male sexual behavior is compatible with broader current theory on human evolution. The same neurological mechanism theorized to be involved in male-female sexual attraction and behavior is purported to mediate male-male sexual attraction and behavior. Finally, I argue that exclusive same-sex attraction in human males is due to an interaction between genetic, cultural, developmental and psychological factors. doi:10.1300/J056v18n04_02     

The Evolution of Culture and Sociology

Orthodox neo-Darwinians have typically sought to explain human pro-social behavior by invoking kin altruism and reciprocal altruism, principles that explain the pro-social behavior of non-human species. These principles, however, do not account for those features of our species that are most unique and of greatest importance to sociologists—our group identities and behavior, our cognitive and behavioral plasticity, our capacity for social learning and cumulative culture, among other things. This article describes the efforts of “dual inheritance” theorists to overcome the deficiencies of orthodox neo-Darwinism by developing an evolutionary theory of culture, a theory that also seeks to account for human “groupishness,” intelligence, language use, empathy, morality and religion. The article asserts that dual inheritance theory accommodates most of the traditional research interests of sociologists while proving a robust explanatory framework and that sociologists are positioned especially well to contribute to the study of the evolution of culture.     

ON THE INFREQUENT ADJUSTMENT OF PRICE BY FIRMS

Many firms change price no more than twice a year. This phenomenon is readily explained by very small price adjustment costs, and the fact that the firm's rate of profit is often insensitive to deviations in the interval between price changes from its optimal level. As a result, firms which change price only once or twice a year may earn almost as much profit as firms that adjust price optimally. This refutes the standard objection that price adjustment costs are too small to matter. The argument does not require extreme assumptions about the flatness of the firm's profit function.     

Sociology and the Second Darwinian Revolution: A Metatheoretical Analysis

Sociologists tend to eschew biological explanations of human social behavior. Accordingly, when evolutionary biologists began to apply neo‐Darwinian theory to the study of human social behavior, the reactions of sociologists typically ranged from indifference to overt hostility. Since the mid‐1960s, however, neo‐Darwinian evolutionary theory has stimulated a "second Darwinian revolution" in traditional social scientific conceptions of human nature and social behavior, even while most sociologists remain largely uninformed about neo‐Darwinian theory and research. This article traces sociology's long‐standing isolation from the life sciences, especially evolutionary biology, to divergence in the metatheoretical assumptions that typify conventional sociological thought versus contemporary evolutionary biology. We conclude with a discussion of the recent emergence of a nascent "evolutionary sociology" that integrates sociobiological reasoning with contemporary sociological thought.     

The economics of performance management in nonprofit organizations

This article analyzes whether and how private‐sector notions of performance management apply to nonprofit organizations. To this end the author shows that each concept of performance management used in the private sector is based on a specific economic theory of the firm and its environment. Before transferring concepts and tools derived from a certain model of the firm and its environment to nonprofit organizations, one must determine whether the assumptions underlying this model are also adequate for nonprofit organizations. Otherwise, one must first adjust those assumptions and analyze whether the derived concepts and tools are still meaningful in the new context; if not, one must determine how to modify them accordingly. The analysis elaborates on the differences between for‐profit and nonprofit organizations that are important for applying performance management concepts. Moreover, the author discusses the practical implications for the use of balanced scorecards in nonprofits.     

Socialism and Dependency in Parsons' Theory of Evolution*

According to Parsons' theory of evolution, socialist (communist) societies deviate from the progressive line of evolutionary development. But Parsons' empirical analyses indicate that socialist societies exhibit many of the features which, according to his theory, are supposed to characterize societies at the apex of evolutionary development. An endeavor to elicit from Parsons' works plausible solutions to this contradiction fails. Juxtaposing Parsons' treatment of the relationships between the developed and the underdeveloped societies to that of the imperialism-dependency theory it is found that the assumptions, propositions, and interpretations of the two are incompatible, or even diametrically opposed to each other. Moreover, Parsons completely disregards the rich theoretical and empirical research emanating from the school of imperialism-dependency. It is concluded that Parsons' theory of evolution can explain neither the socialist path, of development, nor can it address the issue of change of underdeveloped countries within the context of the contemporary world system.     

Values and Evolutionary Psychology

Scholars suggest that evolutionary psychology may provide a foundation for assumptions regarding human values. I explore this suggestion by developing two arguments regarding the permissiveness of norms regulating male and female sexual activity. The first relies on the standard rational choice assumption that people value resources, and the second relies on an assumption suggested by evolutionary psychology that actors value seeing their children successfully reach adulthood. These two assumptions produce contrasting predictions regarding sex norms. I describe the implications of these predictions for explaining cross‐cultural variation and present evidence that supports the evolutionary psychology‐based predictions in this context. I also suggest implications of the two approaches for explaining norms cross‐nationally and within the United States. The article provides support for the utility of evolutionary psychology in developing assumptions about values.     

TAX RATES AND LABOR SUPPLY IN FISCAL EQUILIBRIUM

A central tenet of supply-side economics is that a balanced-budget reduction in the marginal tax rate on wage income increases aggregate labor supply. In contrast, the orthodox Keynesian analysis concludes that the relationship between tax rates and the economy-wide supply of labor is theoretically ambiguous. Our analysis of a general model reveals that these two propositions are associated, respectively, with the special assumptions of "compensated independence" and "ordinary independence" between leisure and public spending.     

A Brief History of the Theory of Evolution

Abstract

A brief history of evolutionary theory illustrates its long development and sociopolitical context. Major theoretical concepts in evolutionary theory are introduced that lay the groundwork for more detailed discussion in later texts. Two incarnations of evolutionary theory—sociobiology and evolutionary psychology—are described in some detail. Criticisms of these ideas are reviewed and evaluated. Evolutionary psychology, with its emphasis on sexual selection theory, has proven to be a rich approach, generating many new insights into human sexuality.     

Organization Formation as Epistemic Practice: The Early Epistemological Function of the American Medical Association

This research explores how social actors adjudicate knowledge claims within intellectual environments where epistemic standards are contested. Through the case study of 19th century debates over cholera in the United States, I examine the strategies deployed by orthodox and homeopathic physicians in the struggle over medical knowledge during this “epistemic contest.” The 1832 cholera epidemic ushered in a crisis for orthodox medicine, as epistemological standards for adjudicating medical knowledge claims became challenged and ill-defined. Failing to muster an effective cultural response to homeopathy, orthodoxy adopted an organizational strategy, forming the American Medical Association and offering professional membership as a proxy indicator of legitimate knowledge. The AMA created an organizational/intellectual space insulated from homeopathy, which translated into a concerted campaign to exclude homeopaths from government institutions and affected the nature of orthodox knowledge on cholera. This case reveals that epistemic contests are not waged by cultural means only; organizational practices form an integral part of actors’ repertoires in adjudicating epistemological claims in practice.     

Navigating post-trauma realities in family systems: Applying social constructivism and systems theory to youth and family trauma

Trauma affecting youth and families takes a variety of forms, from random one-time events such as accidents and natural disasters to chronic and highly personal trauma from child abuse or intimate partner violence. Though trauma has received increasing attention in theory and intervention research over the last several decades, the prevailing theories and treatments have limitations due to a linear perspective focused on the trauma problems of the individual. This is particularly concerning given the high dropout rates for trauma-focused treatments and the complexities of intergenerational trauma that cannot be adequately conceptualised at the level of the individual. To inform and improve family-based treatment of youth and family trauma, this paper proposes a theoretical framework informed by social constructivism and systems theory. Social constructivism upholds that reality is constructed through communication as an adaptive process for survival, with multiple potential realities possible. Systems theory promotes a non-linear view of causality within a system, such that the structure and properties of a system determine outcomes more than the inputs that go into the system. Together, the principles of these meta-theories contradict the orthodox focus on traumatic events causing trauma symptoms, and instead imply that family-based treatment should focus on helping families shift assumptions and dynamics that sustain the problem in the present. The joint application of a social constructivism–systems theory framework for trauma introduces several new principles to inform family-based treatment: (a) post-trauma realities; (b) mutual survival; (c) power–justice balance; and (d) adaptive reorganisation. The implications of these principles for youth and family trauma treatment will be discussed. Future intervention development and research should consider these principles in the ongoing effort to improve family therapy for youth and family trauma.     

STRATEGY AND INTERVENTION VERSUS NONINTERVENTION: A MATTER OF THEORY?*

The question of whether or not intervention and strategy are necessary components of competent therapy is described and related to the metaphorical assumptions of underlying theory. Passive listening and expert interpretations are consequences of psychodynamic theory. Active manipulation of social structure and strategic intervention into feedback are described as consequences of the mechanical assumptions of structural and cybernetic theory. Conversational participation and non intervention are described as necessary consequences of hermeneutic and linguistic approaches to therapy. It is concluded that different theoretical assumptions yield different conclusions regarding the nature of therapy and human problems. From this perspective the question of Intervention Versus Non-Intervention is more a matter of the theory held than a question to be answered in terms of the “right” or “adequate” thing to do or not do.     

Inverted U-shaped conformism: An economic model of endogenous responses to the Joneses

Based on sociologists’ findings, it is more likely that middle-status people are “keeping up with the Joneses” while both the highest-status and lowest-status people are “running away from the Joneses”. Existing economic models fail to reproduce this inverted-U shaped (IUS) curve. In my model, response to the Joneses is endogenized and is related to one's status position. Under some reasonable assumptions, an IUS pattern will appear. A comparison with a sociological explanation of the same phenomenon and further implications will also be discussed.     

Capitalism, money and banking: a critique of recent historical sociology

A conception of money as a 'neutral veil' masking a 'real' economy was adopted by orthodox economic theory after the Methodenstreit, and is also to be found, in a different form, in Marxian political economy. Both derive from an erroneous functionalist and anachronistic 'commodity' theory of money which, as Post-Keynesian economists argue, cannot explain the distinctive form of capitalist credit-money. Orthodox economic theory and classic Marxism have tacitly informed and flawed historical sociology's understanding of money's role in capitalist development. Mann and Runciman, for example, consider the 'economy' exclusively in terms of the social relations of production and imply that money is epiphenomenal and is to be explained as a response to the needs of the 'real' economy. They do not recognize the structural specificity of capitalist money and banking nor its importance. An alternative account of the autonomous historical conditions of existence of the specifically capitalist form of bank and state credit-money and its role in capitalist development is outlined.     

Latin American debt,the IMF,and Adam Smith: A proposal for ethical reform

We examine the role of the IMF orthodox paradigm, and the value system upon which it rests, in the Latin American debt crisis. We conclude that the IMF orthodoxy is an inappropriate basis for international transactions because of the a priori utilitarian value assumptions on which it is based. Furthermore, those value premises have hardened into a narrow and inflexible ideology—similar in nature, if not in content, to Marxist ideology—which has been imposed on indebted Latin American countries. We recommend a value system based on the writings of Adam Smith to replace the value system inherent in the IMF orthodoxy. This value system stresses the inestimable value of all individuals, and we argue that governments and economic institutions must never diminish the happiness of innocent people. We conclude the article with some specific recommendations for reform at the IMF to bring its policies more in line with the moral ideals of Adam Smith.     

Extracting a revised labor supply theory from Becker's model of the household

Conflicting assumptions about labor supply behavior lie at the nexus of ideological and theoretical debates regarding the reality of involuntary unemployment, the efficacy of Keynesian macro-policy, and the appropriate nature of welfare policy. This can in part be attributed to the fact that orthodox theory is effectively predicated upon describing the behavior of individuals whose level of affluence enables them to voluntarily withhold their labor from the market. Ironically, a means of resolution appears if we extend Gary Becker's utility producing model of the household to recognize two latent behavioral concerns: (1) the ‘need’ of households for money income in order to produce utility, and (2) the presence of work activity in the home. The resulting generalized labor supply model extends Becker's analysis to explicitly encompass both the behavior of the affluent, and the behavior of the poor who need to work in order to sustain their existence.     

A critical note on the role of the capability approach for sustainability economics

Can sustainability economics profit from the fusion with Amartya Sen's capability approach, thereby gaining solid normative foundations and wider applicability? We argue that this fusion is mistaken to the extent that the capability approach is essentially a static normative framework while sustainability economics demands a systematic long-term view with focus on wide-ranging societal change. These demands are best realized by taking an evolutionary perspective that focuses on the evolution and development of societies.     

Economic perceptions of gambling behavior

This article outlines the structure of orthodox consumer theory in economics, and reviews the major applications to gambling behavior. Gambling as a means to achieve higher desired levels of wealth is discussed, as is gambling as a consumption activity, as an end in itself. The question of rationality and gambling is discussed, and implications for public policy toward gambling, as it relates to economic models of gambling behavior, are presented.