A Mathematical Model of Service Failure and Recovery Strategies*

Understanding the nature of service failures and their impact on customer responses and designing cost‐effective recovery strategies have been recognized as important issues by both service researchers and practitioners. We first propose a conceptual framework of service failure and recovery strategies. We then transform it into a mathematical model to assist managers in deciding on appropriate resource allocations for outcome and process recovery strategies based on customer risk profiles and the firm's cost structures. Based on this mathematical model we derive optimal recovery strategies, conduct sensitivity analyses of the optimal solutions for different model parameters, and illustrate them through numerical examples. We conclude with a discussion of managerial implications and directions for future research.     

Schedule Recovery: Unplanned Absences in Service Operations*

The U.S. service sector loses 2.3% of all scheduled labor hours to unplanned absences, but in some industries, the total cost of unplanned absences approaches 20% of payroll expense. The principal reasons for unscheduled absences (personal illness and family issues) are unlikely to abate anytime soon. Despite this, most labor scheduling systems continue to assume perfect attendance. This oversight masks an important but rarely addressed issue in services management: how to recover from short‐notice, short‐term reductions in planned capacity. In this article, we model optimal responses to unplanned employee absences in multi‐server queueing systems that provide discrete, pay‐per‐use services for impatient customers. Our goal is to assess the performance of alternate absence recovery strategies under various staffing and scheduling regimes. We accomplish this by first developing optimal labor schedules for hypothetical service environments with unreliable workers. We then simulate unplanned employee absences, apply an absence recovery model, and compute system profits. Our absence recovery model utilizes recovery strategies such as holdover overtime, call‐ins, and temporary workers. We find that holdover overtime is an effective absence recovery strategy provided sufficient reserve capacity (maximum allowable work hours minus scheduled hours) exists. Otherwise, less precise and more costly absence recovery methods such as call‐ins and temporary help service workers may be needed. We also find that choices for initial staffing and scheduling policies, such as planned overtime and absence anticipation, significantly influence the likelihood of successful absence recovery. To predict the effectiveness of absence recovery policies under alternate staffing/scheduling strategies and operating environments, we propose an index based on initial capacity reserves.     

Surprises in Management and Organization: Concept,Sources and A Typology*

We discuss why surprises, defined as events that happen unexpectedly or expected events that take unexpected shapes, are important to organizations and should be considered in the organization and management literature as an umbrella concept, encompassing a variety of related phenomena. The concept of organizational surprises is unpacked and a typology is built around the (un)expectedness of the issue and the (un)expectedness of the process. This typology uncovers the several types of surprising events that organizations may face, and contributes to the literature by identifying how different types of surprises require distinct managerial approaches.     

A Staged Service Innovation Model*

Drawing from the new product development (NPD) literature, service quality literature (SERVQUAL), and empirically grounded research with 53 service innovation decision makers, we develop a staged service innovation model (SIM) for decision makers. We tested the model using empirical data from 329 firms across five industries. The empirical results show that integrating prelaunch service quality training into new service development process leads to successful service innovation. The model developed in this article can be used as a decision support tool and diagnostic model for assessing service innovation ideas, evaluating performance of ongoing service innovations, allocating resources, and improving success rate of service innovations. Decision makers can use the measures developed in this study as a checklist to identify their strengths in delivering service quality to their own customers as well as areas of improvement. This article extends service innovation research by combining NPD and service quality development into a single study and opens the door to further work that could help improve the success rate of service innovations. The model can serve as a base model for future research extensions in service innovation research. A major takeaway for the academic reader is that the SIM demonstrates the value of using the SERVQUAL literature to understand how best to provide excellent quality that results in more fully satisfied customers and, ultimately, improved service performance.     

应急期间服务运作系统能力的采购和恢复模型

分析了大型服务运作系统应急期间的能力应急管理模式,围绕系统内部能力恢复和外部能力采购,综合考虑社会惩罚成本,以应急期间的总成本最小为目标构建了相应的数学模型。通过数值仿真得到4个重要的管理学结论,对社会管理部门的应急政策制定以及运作系统本身在应急期间的科学决策均具有重要的指导意义。     

Toward a Typology of Buyer–Supplier Relationships: A Study of the Computer Industry*

Buyer–supplier relationship typologies are useful analytical tools for purchasing managers in managing exchange relationships with suppliers and monitoring their purchasing portfolios. Existing buyer–supplier relationship typologies are mainly focused on either relational contents or power‐dependence and have limited empirical support for their performance implications. In this study, we developed an alternative buyer–supplier relationship typology that integrates both relational content and power‐dependence dimensions, resulting in four generic relationship types: market, power, autonomous‐link, and constrained‐link relationships. We then performed a longitudinal exploratory investigation of eight leading firms in the U.S. computer industry to explore the performance implications of the typology, using a combinatorial qualitative approach that leverages the strengths of case study research, content analysis, and quasi‐experimental design. The results suggest three theoretical propositions. First, the association between the type of buyer–supplier relationships and buyer firm performance varies such that constrained‐link relationships are superior in terms of operational efficiency while autonomous‐link relationships are superior in terms of product innovation. Second, the positive association between buyer–supplier relational contents (i.e., relationalism) and buyer firm operational efficiency is strengthened as the suppliers' dependence on the buyer firm increases. And finally, the positive association between buyer–supplier relationalism and buyer firm product innovation is weakened as the suppliers' dependence on the buyer firm increases.     

服务质量评价特征及服务补救策略

从一个较新的视角透视、分析了服务质量及其评价标准特征,即顾客感知的服务质量和顾客满意度.顾客感知的服务质量包括两个方面,即产出的技术质量和过程的职能质量;服务质量等价于顾客满意度.然后基于对服务质量的新评价思想,提出实施服务补救策略是提升服务质量必然选择的策略以及服务补救策略实施的具体运作技术.     

Global Measures of Information Service Quality: A Cross-National Study*

Maintaining consistently high quality information services (IS) is a powerful means of increasing the overall efficiency and effectiveness of a global enterprise. This study introduces a global Information Services Function (ISF) Quality Framework that outlines the importance of both behavioral and procedural dimensions in planning, implementing and evaluating global IS quality. Based on this framework, the study investigates the cross-national psychometric properties of a behavioral measure of service quality in the IS context. Using a cross-national survey of IS customers from Korea, Hong Kong, the United States and the Netherlands, perceived ISF service quality was measured using a service quality measure (SERVQUAL) to determine cultural affects. Based on confirmatory factor analysis, support was found for four of the original five SERVQUAL quality dimensions in the U.S.A. and the Netherlands. However, the same four-dimensional measurement model did not fit the Hong Kong and Korean samples. Further factor analysis showed that the Hong Kong and Korean samples shared a somewhat similar factor structure that differs from the shared U.S.A. and Netherlands structure. These findings support previous research that has found an “Asian factor'’with differing definitions of IS Service quality. These findings suggest that the feasibility of standardized global ISF measurement depends heavily on the relative magnitude of cultural effects. Rather than merely applying the U.S.A. ISF/SERVQUAL measure, a localized version of the instrument may need to be developed that captures the unique nature of ISF service perceptions in internationally based subsidiaries or companies.     

基于顾客自我调整导向的差异化服务补救策略研究

已有的服务补救研究认为服务补救应该和服务失败匹配,没有深入探讨顾客心理差异对补救效果的影响。本文提出服务补救应和顾客特征相匹配,从"自我调整导向"角度区分顾客的心理特征,研究顾客的个体差异对服务补救效果的影响。服务补救方式被区分为"多获利"型和"少损失"型两类;顾客的自我调整导向有"趋利"和"避害"之分。本文选取餐馆行业,采用实验方法考察顾客的自我调整导向与补救努力的交互作用对顾客感知的补救绩效和补救满意的影响。通过多因素协方差分析研究发现,当补救努力与顾客的自我调整导向一致时,顾客的感知补救绩效更高,对补救更加满意;对于"趋利"导向的顾客,"多获利"型补救方式效果更好;对于"避害"导向的顾客,"少损失"型补救方式更加有效。     

服务补救悖论形成机理研究

探明服务补救悖论的形成过程对服务失误的控制和服务补救策略的制定都具有重要的意义。本研究以满意度变化过程为主线揭示服务补救悖论形成的全过程。研究发现:服务补救悖论形成过程可由服务失误和服务补救两个不同的过程来描述,在服务失误过程中,失误频率、失误严重性和感知失误可控性都会显著促使顾客满意度降低,其中,失误严重性的影响最大;在服务补救过程中,实物和非实物补救水平都可以恢复消费者的满意度,并且二者的差异不大;关系强度对这两个过程的满意度变化均具有显著的调节作用,其中,关系强度低的顾客对于失误频率和失误严重性更加敏感,并且更注重实物补救水平。     

中国知识员工反生产行为分类的探索性研究

采用多维尺度法,通过4项探索性研究,探讨知识员工反生产行为的分类。子研究1系统地梳理知识员工反生产行为的表现形式,得到66种反生产行为;子研究2运用多维尺度法对66种反生产行为进行分类,得到反生产行为的空间分布图;子研究3运用专家数据进行回归分析,得到对反生产行为分类维度的命名依据;子研究4通过聚类分析,确定对4种反生产行为进行命名的有效性。研究结果表明,中国知识员工反生产行为可以从危害程度、不道德程度两个维度进行分类,包括针对他人、针对组织、消极式针对任务、激进式针对任务等4类反生产行为。比较简洁、清晰地梳理了知识员工反生产行为的总体层级体系,不仅能丰富反生产行为理论研究,而且也对中国知识员工反生产行为管理具有较强的指导意义。     

影响顾客对服务罚金不满的认知和情感因素

基于社会公平理论建立概念模型,借助关键事件法和问卷调查收集数据,运用结构方程模型实证研究影响顾客对服务罚金的评价和行为反应的主要因素.结果表明,罚金特征(严厉性、灵活性和解释性)通过认知因素(感知公平)和情感因素(负面情感)显著地影响顾客对罚金的不满意程度,进而导致顾客的消极行为反应.由此,服务企业应该在罚金的设计、执行和沟通中注重帮助顾客树立感知公平和避免负面情感.     

关系品质对服务补救效果的调节作用

在关于服务补救的文献中,许多研究过于强调服务补救属性本身对补救后顾客态度和行为意向的影响。其实,它们不仅仅取决于类似于特定服务补救属性的感觉要素,还取决于类似于关系品质这样的知觉要素。为了揭示知觉要素对服务补救效果的重要性,本文以关系品质作为调节变量来考察它对服务补救过程中顾客的态度标识参数和行为意向的影响,发现关系品质对于服务补救效果确实存在着积极的调节作用,并根据这一发现提出了相应的营销建议。最后,文章给出了本研究的局限和未来的研究方向。     

基于外部比较下的服务补救后顾客行为意向的探讨

本研究探讨了同一顾客在一家企业经历了服务失败和服务补救后与在另外一家企业从未遭遇过服务失败的比较下其行为意向,为服务补救的研究提供了新的视角。本研究考察了顾客归因对服务补救预期的影响,验证了顾客的补救预期越高则其满意度越低,满意度越高则其行为意向越积极,证明了顾客的行为意向不仅受到满意度的影响还受到顾客感知的服务失败严重程度的影响。     

服务业员工情绪劳动策略效能的实证研究

有关服务业中情绪劳动的管理研究正在引起关注。已有研究认为员工的情绪智力影响情绪劳动中的工作绩效、工作满意度以及工作压力感,本文进一步提出个体的情绪劳动策略对此起到中介作用。通过对电信服务业员工情绪智力、情绪劳动策略和工作绩效、工作满意度、压力感的实证分析,发现情绪劳动策略在情绪智力和员工的工作绩效、工作满意度和工作压力感之间起到部分中介作用。研究结果对服务型企业的人力资源管理实践具有一定的借鉴意义。     

Improving the Utilization of Front-Line Service Delivery System Personnel*

There are two types of work typically performed in services which differ in the degree of control management has over when the work must be done. Serving customers, an activity that can occur only when customers are in the system is, by its nature, uncontrollable work. In contrast, the execution of controllable work does not require the presence of customers, and is work over which management has some degree of temporal control. This paper presents two integer programming models for optimally scheduling controllable work simultaneously with shifts. One model explicitly defines variables for the times at which controllable work may be started, while the other uses implicit modeling to reduce the number of variables. In an initial experiment of 864 test problems, the latter model yielded optimal solutions in approximately 81 percent of the time required by the former model. To evaluate the impact on customer service of having front-line employees perform controllable work, a second experiment was conducted simulating 5, 832 service delivery systems. The results show that controllable work offers a useful means of improving labor utilization. Perhaps more important, it was found that having front-line employees perform controllable work did not degrade the desired level of customer service.     

A Design Theory Approach to Building Strategic Network‐Based Customer Service Systems*

Customer service is a key component of a firm's value proposition and a fundamental driver of differentiation and competitive advantage in nearly every industry. Moreover, the relentless coevolution of service opportunities with novel and more powerful information technologies has made this area exciting for academic researchers who can contribute to shaping the design and management of future customer service systems. We engage in interdisciplinary research—across information systems, marketing, and computer science—in order to contribute to the service design and service management literature. Grounded in the design‐science perspective, our study leverages marketing theory on the service‐dominant logic and recent findings pertaining to the evolution of customer service systems. Our theorizing culminates with the articulation of four design principles. These design principles underlie the emerging class of customer service systems that, we believe, will enable firms to better compete in an environment characterized by an increase in customer centricity and in customers' ability to self‐serve and dynamically assemble the components of solutions that fit their needs. In this environment, customers retain control over their transactional data, as well as the timing and mode of their interactions with firms, as they increasingly gravitate toward integrated complete customer solutions rather than single products or services. Guided by these design principles, we iterated through, and evaluated, two instantiations of the class of systems we propose, before outlining implications and directions for further cross‐disciplinary scholarly research.     

Discerning Possibilities for Action: A Typology of Approaches to Moral Imagination

The existing literature on moral imagination proposes that actors can best respond to ethical dilemmas by tailoring their actions to the practical demands of the situation. It has done little to develop this insight, however. To address this gap, I used institutional theory to identify six ideal type approaches to moral imagination. I proposed that in addressing ethical dilemmas, the morally imaginative actor takes account of two situational factors: first, the social construction of the unmet ethical claim or obligation which constitutes the ethical dilemma, and in particular whether or not it is broadly perceived to be legitimate; and second, its own degree of power. The framework presented represents the first attempt to systematically enumerate approaches to moral imagination and identify their boundary conditions.     

Management Policies to Improve the Effectiveness of Multi-Station Service Organizations*

A SLAM based simulation model of a multi-station, tandem queuing structure characteristic of a variety of service systems is employed to test various design options for the system. The model is based on an extensive study of the State of Florida driver licensing offices. The multiple objectives of low time in the system for customers and the efficient use of personnel resources are employed to measure the benefits of policy options. The use of simulation analysis permits the incorporation of complex system characteristics, therefore providing a realistic representation of the effects of possible management actions. Effective methods to control labor in such systems are suggested.