Critical Commentary: Looked After Children: Time for Change?

At a time of increasing focus on evidence-based practice, thispaper invites readers to question the basis of our public caresystem and to evaluate the increasing move towards kinship carein the light of the evidence.     

Children Starting to be Looked After by Local Authorities in England: An Analysis of Inter-authority Variation and Case-centred Decision Making

This paper presents findings from a study of children lookedafter by 24 local authorities in England. The study combinedanalysis of key statistical data with a questionnaire surveycompleted by the social workers for a sub-sample of the children.This paper focuses on children who started a period of beinglooked after in the participating authorities during the 6 monthsfrom October 2000 to March 2001. The study found considerablevariation between the authorities in their rates of childrenstarting to be looked after, and the paper explores reasonsfor these differences. It also highlights the variety of legalroutes and placement options used for children entering thelooked after system, and proposes a matrix that summarizes thevarious combinations that the authorities were found to be using.The matrix can assist social workers and their managers in identifyingthe most appropriate option for individual children.     

Putting Programme into Practice: The Introduction of Concurrent Planning into Mainstream Adoption and Fostering Services

Originating in Seattle, USA, in the early 1980s, concurrentplanning aimed to speed the placement of children into permanentfamilies, either birth or substitute, and to reduce overallthe time spent in impermanent care. When the first pilot concurrentplanning project was introduced in the UK in 1998, independentevaluation was a requirement of government funding. The evaluationwas expanded to include two additional projects when the numberof initial referrals failed to meet the projected target. Thispaper looks beyond the successful outcomes of the pilot projects,focusing instead on the local authority context in order toexplore some of the difficulties in setting up such an innovativeprogramme, and to shed light on why concurrent planning appearedslow to take off. Based primarily on interviews conducted withsocial workers at different levels of responsibility, the researchersencountered a steep learning curve for all the professionals.The research findings indicated positive outcomes for the childrenplaced through concurrent planning, but limited understandingof the concept of concurrent planning, uncertainty in the divisionof responsibilities, and failure to take up preparation andtraining opportunities contributed to the initial slow progressin the incorporation of the programme.     

Who Takes Care of Education? Looked after children's perceptions of support for educational progress

This paper documents the views of a sample of 80 children and young people, aged 10–18 years, living in foster and residential care placements in England, regarding their educational experience whilst being looked after. The children were interviewed as part of an ongoing evaluation of the Taking Care of Education project, a development programme designed to facilitate improvements in the education of looked after children, co‐ordinated by the National Children's Bureau and funded by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation. Interviews with the sample asked children to assess their current educational progress and identify individuals who supported or hindered their education, as well as the availability of educational support in care placements. Teaching staff were frequently mentioned as providers of support, whilst social workers were often associated with hindering educational progress. Children and young people had access to a range of educational supports in care placements, and these were more widely available in residential settings than in foster care. Children offered a range of pertinent suggestions as to how the educational experience of those in the public care system might be improved.     

Disabled Children's Experience of Permanency in the Looked After System

Research with seven local authorities in England provided dataon the ‘care careers’ of 596 foster-children overthree years (Sinclair et al., 2005). One part of this studylooked at the experiences of disabled foster-children comparedto non-disabled foster-children. The research aimed to identifyif there were any particular difficulties in pursuing permanencyfor disabled looked after children. This article introducesa concept developed by the author from this work: the idea thatdisabled children may be at risk of experiencing a ‘reverseladder of permanency’; being less likely than their peersto receive permanent placements such as adoption and returnhome. The results of the study partially supported this hypothesis,reinforcing existing findings and highlighting some new ones.Foster-children with learning but not other impairments wereless likely to be adopted. All disabled children were less likelyto return home and therefore remained in foster-care for longer.Disabled children who were adopted, or who returned home, didso after a greater delay compared to non-disabled children.By contrast, children who were ‘clearly disabled’achieved a greater degree of permanence within the care system.The article concludes by considering the implications of suchfindings for policy and practice.     

Good Practice in the Education of Children in Residential Care

Correspondence to The Directors, New Horizons (Child Care) Ltd., Unit B, Silkmoor, New Street, Frankwell, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY3 8LN, UK. E-mail info{at}new-horizonschildcare.co.uk Summary Research shows that the education of children in residentialcare is generally poor, in terms of both process and outcome.This has highlighted the uncertainty over how best to educatethese children and a pessimism over what they can achieve. Drawingupon the findings of an evaluation of a children’s home,this paper argues that children in residential care can havegood educational outcomes. It also shows that it is possibleto identify the processes by which these outcomes can be broughtabout. However, this largely positive assessment is predicatedupon education being defined broadly in respect of ‘process’and ‘outcome’. Moreover, it is important not tounderestimate the formidable challenges inherent in this work.While the multi-agency nature of this work gives rise to oneof the most significant, it has to be recognized that responsibilityfor the education of children in residential care falls primarilyto children’s homes. If children’s homes are tomeet the increasing expectations that are being made of them,national and local government will have to undertake a radicaltransformation of residential childcare, especially in termsof attitudes towards, and resources invested in, this sector.Central to this is the establishment of a qualified and properlysupported workforce.     

Investing in children's futures: enhancing the educational arrangements of 'looked after' children and young people

This paper reports on selected findings of a small-scale study which examined the educational experiences of a group of children 'looked after' away from home in the former Lothian Regional Council. While it is claimed that the advent of a new Scottish parliament heralds an opportunity to construct a more inclusive society in Scotland, it is clear from all the research conducted to date that one excluded group, children who are in public care, experience significant educational disadvantages and that both the scale and persistence of the problem demand urgent measures. A brief review of the literature is offered and a number of explanations for the poor educational performance of this group of children are considered. It is argued that the difficulties experienced by looked after children arise from the interplay of a variety of social, structural and professional factors and that efforts to redress the disadvantages must take account of all these factors. The paper briefly considers the origins and philosophy of the Scottish Children's Hearings System and argues that it could fulfil a more proactive role in safeguarding and promoting looked after children's educational interests. Finally, the key features of a strategic approach are outlined, highlighting the need for effective collaboration in policy and practice.     

Filial Therapy: Helping Children and New Carers to Form Secure Attachment Relationships

This article discusses a method of combined play therapy/familytherapy for looked after and late adopted children and theircarers, namely Filial Therapy. Recently introduced into theUK, Filial Therapy’s well-developed practice base andgrowing body of research findings in North American are presentedhere. The rationale for employing the method of non-directiveplay therapy, on which Filial Therapy is based, with childrenwho have been maltreated is outlined. Case vignettes are usedto demonstrate that Filial Therapy is suitable for using withchildren who have multiple problems, since it is attachmentoriented as well as able to help children address their traumatic,abusive memories and emotional defences through play. FilialTherapy also helps carers develop stronger and more adaptiverelationships with their children, reducing their stress levelsand heightening their care-giving responses. Filial Therapyseems highly viable as a robust, cost-effective, treatment strategyto strengthen new and troubled placements. However, there remainimportant questions to be addressed via future research in theUK.     

Social Work Practices: silences and elisions in the plan to 'transform' the lives of children 'looked after' in England

This paper critically examines the government's proposals for the reform of services for children in public care, or 'looked after', in England and, more specifically, the proposal to set up Social Work Practices (SWPs, see Note 1 ). These are envisaged as groups of social workers, commissioned by but independent of local authorities. The changes have been mapped out by a Green Paper Care Matters: Transforming the Lives of Children and Young People in Care published in October 2006, a subsequent working group report, and Care Matters: Time for Change , a White Paper published in June 2007. This was followed, in November, by the publication of the Children and Young Persons' Bill. It is argued that there are, at least, two issues which could be focused on by those seeking to counter moves to introduce SWPs. First, the enhanced role being given to private sector providers because, it is maintained, public services provided by local authorities are unambiguously 'failing' children. Second, the fact that the views of parents and 'looked after' children are mostly excluded from the dominant and 'official' discourse on SWPs.     

The role of manager in children's homes: the process of managing and leading a well-functioning staff team

This paper is based on qualitative findings from a mixed methods project which investigated the roles of managers of children's homes and the relationship of these to their use of resources and the outcomes for young people in their care. The research formed part of the Costs and Effectiveness of Services to Children in Need research initiative, originally funded by the Department of Health. Main findings from the project overall and in particular from the multi-level modelling analysis indicated that the influence which the process of providing care has on the kind of outcomes experienced by young people is of paramount importance. This paper provides a brief overview of the project and its aims. Drawing on the qualitative strand of the project and overall project findings, the paper investigates three aspects of managing children's homes: establishing working relationships with staff teams, the role of managers and bringing about working with the young people in their care. It situates the role of manager within the wider context of literature on leadership and investigates what leadership in children's homes entails. Finally, the paper highlights the importance of the role of manager in relationship to the development of good practice in children's homes.     

Numbers of children looked after in England: a historical analysis

This paper is an analysis of the relationship between policy, practice and the rates of children looked after by local authorities in England. It examines the trends in the numbers of children looked after by local authorities in England over a period of approximately 40 years. The increase in children looked after in the decade after 1994 is shown to be the result of fewer children entering care, but those that do tend to stay longer. This two-part dynamic appears to have been the underlying determinant of the care population over a long period of time. The fact that time spent in care is such a key factor suggests that planning for children who are already looked after is a crucial determinant of the numbers in care. However, it is argued that poorly developed family support services limit current options for reducing the size of the care population. A range of effective family support services could potentially have an impact on the number of children in care in three ways: by helping to maintain more children within their families; by identifying those children who need care earlier; and by improving the chances of some children being successfully returned home.     

Why are we waiting? The demography of adoption for children of black,Asian and black mixed parentage in England

The known shortage of adopters for children of black, Asian and black mixed parentage poses many dilemmas for practitioners, not least because of the potentially damaging consequences of delay while placements are sought. Drawing on a study of agency policy and practice in the recruitment of a larger, more diverse pool of adopters, this paper explores the demography of adoption for children of black, Asian and black mixed parentage. The paper suggests that the adoption prospects of children of some ethnic and religious groups may be affected by the young age structures of their populations. The age profiles and presenting needs of looked after children also vary between ethnic groups, putting some groups at a relatively greater disadvantage in terms of their adoption chances. At the same time, the paper considers the environmental and family factors that may affect the recruitment of a more diverse pool of adopters, and highlights the difficulties of achieving a balance between adopters’ expectations and the needs of waiting children. It concludes that more culturally sensitive and proactive recruitment strategies are needed, together with targeted, creative approaches to meet the placement needs of those children of black, Asian or mixed parentage who currently wait longest.     

The Characteristics of Children with a Disability Looked After away from Home and their Future Service Needs

Correspondence to Professor Roy McConkey, School of Nursing, University of Ulster, Newtownabbey, N. Ireland BT37 0QB. E-mail: r.mcconkey{at}ulster.ac.uk Summary Little is known about the characteristics of children with disabilitieswho meet the British legal definition of ‘looked after’children. Data were obtained on 108 such children living withinone geographical area in Northern Ireland and who spent 90 daysor more in a 12-month period living away from the family home.However, this figure may under-estimate the numbers, given thedifficulties in tracking children aged over 14 years who wereadmitted to hospitals on a short- or long-term basis. The medianage of the children was 14 years; most had learning disabilitiesallied with challenging behaviours, communication difficulties,autism and some were technologically dependent. Many of theirfamilies experienced a range of problems. One-third of the childrenwere accommodated in various residential settings but half ofthese placements were in hospital or adult residential accommodation.However, there were marked differences in the services providedto this client group by the four provider agencies. Future serviceneeds included increased respite breaks for families and theprovision of both more residential placements and more appropriateaccommodation, especially for teenagers. The dilemmas in reconcilingthe need for local, but specialized, service provision are discussed.     

The emotional labour of caring about looked‐after children

Quality relationships form the backbone of social work with children and their families. They are particularly relevant in the close, intimate work with looked‐after children who have identified how important it is to them that their relationship with their social worker is positive, warm and meaningful. It is accepted that in order to achieve and maintain successful and meaningful relationships, practitioners need to engage at an emotional as well as a professional level. All too often this requires a trade‐off between organizational efficiency and the emotional work of caring for looked‐after children. Therefore, it would appear the role of corporate parent is increasingly difficult, involving complex decisions about how practitioners might best spend their time, where their loyalties lie and the quality and direction of the final output. Using data from a series of interviews with practitioners, this paper explores the difficulties of maintaining active emotional engagement with children using the sociological concept of emotional labour.     

Models of 'ordinary' and 'special' daily living: matching residential care to the mental-health needs of looked after children

This paper proposes a set of distinctions between ‘ordinary’ and ‘special’ modes of everyday living in residential settings for young people in the ‘looked after’ system. The paper begins by reviewing both quantitative and qualitative evidence on the mental‐health needs of the young people, arguing that there is evidence of very high levels of mental distress and disturbance within this group, and that this distress is often undiagnosed and untreated both by psychiatric professionals and within the residential care system itself. There follows a commentary on the tacit assumptions underpinning much residential practice, especially the emphasis in some policy and legal documentation on the young people’s need for ‘ordinary’ everyday experience. The concept of the ‘ordinary’ is problematized, and it is argued that while young people do need to be supported towards mainstream ‘ordinary’ everyday living, they also need specialized everyday care in which their emotional and psychological needs can be recognized and responded to. Four models of ‘special everyday living’ are proposed, based upon existing literature on residential practice, and it is argued that residential care programmes should be based upon a mix of these special and ordinary provisions if the young people’s emotional needs are to be met.     

Supporting families of origin: an exploration of the influence of the Children Act 1948

The 50th anniversary of the Children Act 1948 is an opportunity to look back at the evolution of child care practice in England and Wales. This paper traces the development of social work practice aimed at supporting families of origin. It highlights the transition of the concept of prevention from a narrow focus on the prevention of admission to care, to the wider understanding of family support reflected in the Children Act 1989. Some of the challenges to policy and practice supporting families are identified and it is argued that the retreat from prevention in the 1970s is most evident in the subsequent investment in the child rescue ideology of the 'permanence movement'. The paper draws attention to the intentions of the Children Act 1989 to redress the failures and deficiencies of earlier practice by its emphasis on supporting families of children in need. It highlights current concerns that practice aimed at supporting families of origin continues to be marginalized by an emphasis on child protection and argues for a renewed commitment to section 17, Children Act 1989.     

The Sound Of Silence: Listening to What Unaccompanied Asylum-seeking Children Say and Do Not Say

Unaccompanied asylum-seeking children are noted at times tobe silent or circumspect about their origins and circumstanceswhen faced with authority figures, including social workers.Using some key ideas from ethnography and narrative therapy,this article examines existing literature on silence in thelives of unaccompanied minors, and on how the choices they makeabout talking and not talking can hinder or facilitate resettlement.It then describes a small research study within which interviewswere undertaken with local authority social workers to elicittheir responses to unaccompanied minors in such circumstances.These revealed that practitioners understood the children’ssilence in varied ways, and that they could be practically helpful,therapeutically minded and reliable companions, accompanyingthe young people towards resettlement, with or without knowingthe detailed ‘truth’ about their past     

Schizophrenia: The Impact of Parental Illness on Children

This research sets out to discover what impact parental schizophreniamakes on a child’s life. It focuses on the daily lifeand experiences of children. Their health, education, familyand leisure activities are examined. Contact with helping agenciesand their unmet needs are investigated. The sample was drawnfrom the children of patients attending the mental health servicesin South West Dublin. They were matched with a control groupof children of well parents. The majority of children who haveone parent with schizophrenia had similar profiles to the childrenof well parents in the areas of physical health, positive familyfeelings, friendships, hobbies and household tasks. In a numberof other areas, however, differences were found. Sample childrenhad more psychiatric disturbance, more problems associated withschool, less contact with relatives and spent more time at home.The children had little access to services and were upset byhospital visiting. The need for an educational programme andsupport for these children was demonstrated. It is recommendedthat a more co-ordinated approach is required by both adultand child mental health services in order to meet their needs.     

The Communication of Differential Relationships in Preschool Children: Preference and Social Theme

We examined the conversations of 14 preschool children to explore differences in communication between friends and nonfriends in a well-established group. Children's social preferences were identified by analysing relative utterance frequencies which revealed a network structure of 4 cliques. We then examined whether the integration (inclusion/exclusion) and social theme (person/action) content of children's utterances, and the responses (accept/oppose) to these utterances, discriminated relationships in the social network. Our main findings were 1) Exclusive utterances were more likely to occur between nonfriends and to be opposed. Inclusive utterances were more likely to occur between friends and to be accepted. 2) Person and action themes were used differentially. In exclusion statements, nonfriends were more likely to be personally rejected whereas friends were more likely to have their actions rejected. In inclusion statements, personal references were more likely to be accepted between friends whereas references to a peer's actions tended to be accepted by both friends and nonfriends. We concluded that children adapted the integration and social theme content of their utterances to relationship context in order to establish more intimate interactions between friends and more distant interactions between nonfriends.     

Children's Voices: The Views of Vulnerable Children on Their Service Providers and the Relevance of Services They Receive

This paper describes and analyses the views of vulnerable childrenof eleven years and under on the relevance of services theyreceived. The two research questions posed were, first, whatare effective practices for engaging with vulnerable children;and, second, how can the voices of vulnerable children be usedto influence the development of policy? The first question wasaddressed through a systematic review of existing literatureon effective strategies for interviewing vulnerable childrenand revealed that few studies that focus on interviewing youngchildren are designed to address effectiveness. As yet, notall young children are asked for their views by those makingdecisions about their lives, though their involvement increaseswith age. The second question was addressed through focus groupsand interviews which revealed that children hold many validviews related to their roles and relationships with serviceproviders and decisions being made concerning their lives. Itwas concluded that whilst children’s lived experienceof services they receive could contribute to the creation ofmore democratic communities in which children and their familiesparticipate, it remains to be seen whether the new Green Paper,Every Child Matters (DfES, 2003), increases their sense of autonomyor merely extends the degree to which they are controlled.