The potential role of physical activity on driving performance and safety among older adults

The elderly represent the fastest growing driving population. Older drivers have a high crash rate per distance traveled, a high risk of injury or death in traffic accidents, and are commonly found to be ‘at fault’ in crashes. This reality has focused more interest on issues associated with the fitness to drive and the safety of older drivers. Many older adults depend greatly on their personal vehicle for transportation and suffer a marked loss of quality of life when, as a consequence of no longer being able or permitted to drive, their mobility becomes significantly restricted. The reasons for the deterioration of driving performance that occur during the aging process are multi-factorial and a great deal of research has focused on the identification of those factors. Nevertheless, some studies incorporating training programs have tried, with some success, to improve the driving-related abilities of older drivers. It has been demonstrated that physical activity can promote several skills that are associated with driving performance in older drivers. Few studies, though, have conducted exercise interventions among older drivers intended to enhance their driving-related abilities and promote road safety. In this context, the purpose of this work consists of examining the perceptual, cognitive, health, and physical factors related to fitness to drive in older adults and identifying possible strategies that can enhance their driving-related abilities. Moreover, potential mechanisms underlying the relationship among physical activity, driving ability, and road safety are discussed.     

Aging as intracohort differentiation: Accentuation,the Matthew effect,and the life course

Recent contributions of sociologists and others have brought a new awareness and new theoretical understanding of the extent to which human aging and life-course patterns are shaped by social conditions and influenced by social change. Yet the potential of many social processes to account for individual aging patterns remains untapped, because research and theory have focused heavily upon comparisons between cohorts rather than the internal differentiation of cohorts. This paper shows that focusing upon intracohort differentiation over the life course leads to a mobilization of sociological findings whose age-related implications have not been exploited. Using the phenomenon of aged heterogeneity as an illustrative case, it is suggested that intracohort differentiation—operating through macro-level, organizational, and micro-level processes—can explain significant phenomena of aging previously neglected by theory, or else assumed to be psychological in origin. These processes specify Merton's Matthew effect. Implications for biological aging and for research are briefly discussed.     

Immigration to the Federal Republic of Germany as a demographic and social problem

"Addressing the question of immigration to Western Europe and especially to Germany from east and southeast Europe and from developing countries of the South, this article considers whether such immigration can compensate for reductions in population in developed countries. It is argued that the demographic deficits of an aging population can only be corrected to a limited extent through immigration. Any solution, in order to be effective, must include a simultaneous increase in the birthrates of Germany and other European Community countries. With particular regard to future social development in Germany and the EC, it would be advisable for governments to effect measures that will provide both for controlled admissions of immigrants from outside the EC and an increase in local reproductive capabilities."     

Daily living abilities and work abilities of people with Parkinson's disease

A questionaire survey was conducted on 60 items of daily living abilities linked to 13 basic work abilities such as memory, learning, planning, muscular power and concentration etc. covering a total of 133 subjects with Parkinson's disease. Results of the survey were as follows: 1. Daily living abilities and work abilities decreased in accordance with Yahr's stages and the degree of daily living abilities. 2. Daily living abilities provided clues for aging and prognosis of the Parkinson's disease. 3. "Cope well with heat and coldness", "Being confident in the strength of legs and loins" and "Keep balance in the train" were difficult to do from the early stages of the onset. 4. Audio-visual ability, memory and judgement were well maintained despite the severity of the disease. 5. All subjects showed poor endurance, while learning, planning and manual dexterity showed higher performance in those under 59.     

Motor-skill learning in older adults—a review of studies on age-related differences

This paper reviews research on motor-skill learning across the life span with particular emphasis on older age. For this purpose, studies that focus on age-related differences in fine and gross motor skills and studies that analyze the further refinement of known skills as well as learning of unknown motor skills are summarized. The reviewed studies suggest that although motor performance tends to decline in old age, learning capabilities remain intact, and older adults are able to achieve considerable performance gains. The extent to which the learning capability varies with age, however, has to be considered very carefully. While most studies revealed that performance gains in fine motor tasks are diminished in older adults, results for gross-motor-skill learning are more contradictory. Additionally, there is considerable agreement on the finding that age-related learning differences are statistically more robust in complex tasks, whereas in low-complexity tasks, the learning of younger and older adults is very similar. This applies to fine and gross motor skills. Relative age differences seem to become enlarged when effortful resources are required for motor performance. Thus, the decline in motor learning that accompanies aging is task specific and not absolute.

The relevance of situation awareness in older adults’ cognitive functioning: a review

Age-related declines in cognition may have detrimental effects on older adults’ ability to complete everyday activities that young- and middle-aged individuals perform automatically. Theories of cognitive aging have found deficits in older adults’ fluid intelligence, capacity for inhibition, number of processing resources, and speed of processing, and in recent years, studies have proposed cognitive strategies to ameliorate these declines. However, few strategies directly train the cognitive strategies necessary to improve performance in dynamic environments and physical activities. One such strategy may be the enhancement of situation awareness, the capability to perceive and understand one’s environment. Although the term has typically been applied to pilots and other expert performers, situation awareness may also be relevant to cognitive aging, where older adults’ perception and comprehension of their environment become critical to everyday functioning and physical activities. If older adults’ situation awareness can be facilitated, then it may be possible to reduce the impact of age-related cognitive declines, allowing older adults to successfully participate in dynamic situations and sports where the environment is constantly changing (e.g., driving and tennis). The following review outlines cognitive deficits in aging, details their relation to situation awareness, and discusses how training in situation awareness may reduce cognitive declines. Portions of this paper were reported at the annual meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity in June, 2005.     

A bio-psycho-social model of successful aging as shown through the variable “physical activity”

In this article, we present and explain a bio-psycho-social model of successful aging with subjective well-being as a criterion of a successful aging process. We focus on physical activity because it is a crucial behavior. Physical activity can support successful aging in two different ways: first, due to its physiological and cognitive effects, and Second, an older person can enhance subjective well-being (SWB) while being physically active. The model points out that an older person can regulate SWB. To do this, an older person should set and pursue personally and culturally valued goals. The strength of the association between setting a goal and goal pursuance, respectively, and SWB depends on the extent a person is able to satisfy psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness). But, the decision as to which goal will be set and pursued does not belong to the older person exclusively. The bio-psycho-social model explains that the chance to enhance SWB is restricted by personal dispositions (e.g., physiological constitution, psychological factors) and social–structural constraints (e.g., predominant stereotype of aging, facilities especially for target groups). Funding credit: Landesstiftung Baden Württemberg gGmbH [Landesstiftung Foundation]     

Lipofuscin and aging: a matter of toxic waste

Lipofuscin is membrane-bound cellular waste that can be neither degraded nor ejected from the cell but can only be diluted through cell division and subsequent growth. The fate of postmitotic cells is to accumulate lipofuscin, which as an "aging pigment" has been considered a reliable biomarker for the age of cells such as neurons and, by extension, their hosts. In the aging human brain, deposits of lipofuscin are not uniformly distributed but are concentrated in specific regions of functional interest. The prevailing thought is that the major source of lipofuscin is incomplete lysosomal degradation of damaged mitochondria. Accumulating evidence suggests that lipofuscin is not benign but can impair the functioning of seemingly unrelated cellular systems, including the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. A damaging feedback loop of lysosomal and proteasomal inhibition may occur as lipofuscin accumulates, leading to what has been appropriately named a "garbage catastrophe." Reversing this catastrophe presents a formidable challenge.     

Conversing about aging and practice

Using four open-ended questions, individual conversations were conducted with 20 professionals from 10 fields of practice in aging. Professionals were over 60 years of age, had worked in the field at least 10 years, and personally considered themselves elders. This project found that they were aware of their personal aging process, were knowledgeable about resources, had considered their values, beliefs, and interests, and had developed an “aging plan” that would optimize a meaningful and enjoyable quality of life. They generally viewed themselves positively, had a strong sense of identity, accepted the changes that come with aging, and maintained an active and engaged lifestyle. They understood the commonalities of aging, but also respected and valued the uniqueness of each individual’s experiences. Aging had significantly affected their professional practice as well, primarily by increasing empathy, sensitivity, understanding, and patience, as well as through greater awareness and special attention to meaningful communication with clients and patients. Their personal aging awareness had a generally positive effect on professional practice. Practitioners’ thoughts and experiences with their own aging can both serve as a model for the general public and be utilized to programs to assist seniors in remaining vital members of society     

Productive aging: an overview of the literature

"Productive aging" describes an array of activities through which older people contribute to society. Both the extent of current productive activities among older people and the barriers to more extensive productive activity are reviewed. If certain adjustments can be made for their special needs, older people have the potential to make substantial contributions. However, a variety of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory practices continue to limit the opportunities of older people to make productive contributions, particularly in workplace settings. Interventions are needed to strengthen opportunities for retraining, employment, and volunteering for older people. At the same time, programs and policies to facilitate the productive participation of older people cannot easily correct for the adverse effects of a lifetime of racial or gender discrimination.     

Productive Aging:

"Productive aging" describes an array of activities through which older people contribute to society. Both the extent of current productive activities among older people and the barriers to more extensive productive activity are reviewed. If certain adjustment can be made for their special needs, older people have the potential to make substantial contributions. However, a variety of prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory practices continue to limit the opportunity of older people to make productive contributions, particularly in workplace settings. Interventions are needed to strengthen opportunities for training, employment, and volunteering for older people. At the same time, program and policies to facilitate the productive participations of older people cannot easily correct the adverse effect of a lifetime of racial or gender discrimination.     

The impact of emotions and predominant emotion regulation technique on driving performance

Emotion-provoking stimuli abound on modern roadways. Driving measures, of both longitudinal and lateral control of the vehicle, have been shown to vary based on affective influences. Research, however, has yet to address how drivers' individual techniques to mitigate emotional reactions influence driving performance. To address this issue, the present study featured a dual-task protocol involving simulated driving together with processing of emotionally-valenced images with a focus on different Predominant Emotion Regulation Techniques (PERT): one adaptive strategy (task-focused coping) and one maladaptive style (emotion-focused coping). Dependent measures included mean driving speed and number of lane excursions. Results indicated that pleasant images degraded longitudinal control to the greatest extent, while unpleasant images produced the greatest detriment in lateral control. Additionally, individuals' PERT played a major interactive role in drivers' longitudinal control leading task-focused females and emotion-focused males to adhere more closely to the speed limit; yet, it did not affect their lateral control. Results hold important potential implications for the amount or variety of training necessary for driver licensure to promote and sustain safe vehicle control.     

Batteries assessing health related fitness in the elderly: a brief review

Evaluation of physical functioning is a key issue in clinical geriatrics and in aging research. In recent years, different physical performance batteries in which individuals are asked to perform several tasks and are evaluated using different criteria have been designed and used in elderly populations. These batteries include different types of test which range from basic motor abilities to relevant everyday activities, depending on the construct area in the domain of physical function that must be measured. This paper reviews and classifies the main physical functioning batteries that can be found in the scientific field of aging research in order to provide knowledge on selection, administration, and interpretation of this indispensable assessment tools.     

Recent developments in the employment and retirement of older workers in Germany

Against a background of an aging population, rising social security costs, and foreseeable labor and skill shortages, there have been public policy changes affecting older workers in Germany. Labor-market related initiatives aim at an increase of labor force participation among this group. Enterprise-related, active age-management strategies aim at improving occupational conditions of aging workers. In this context, prolonging the working life must be seen as one option of "active aging." Another view of the current retirement discussion is the question of how the unused potential of Germany's younger, early-retired seniors can be exploited. Active aging has become a social duty nowadays, with the intention that older persons contribute to society to avoid generational conflicts. In the future, active aging will preserve the competitiveness of enterprises and of the entire economy, despite an aging labor force. But gerontological research points out that different options to carry out individual life plans of active aging are also required. This article reviews the changes in public policies towards older workers and includes the findings of a project that illustrates good practice to combat age barriers in the labor world.     

A Qualitative Exploration of Self-Regulation Behaviors Among Older Drivers

While much of the research on aging and driving has focused on sensory and motor changes, little is known about older drivers and the actual self-regulation adjustments they employ to continue driving safely. This research looks at how older drivers have made changes to driving patterns and behaviors that have allowed them to continue to drive without compromising their perceived safety, independence, and quality of life. Nine focus groups were held with older men and women aged 58 to 89 years. Some of the major themes that emerged were the following: older adults are very aware of age-related changes to driving; they perceive that self-regulation behaviors change with age; and they view transportation alternatives as limited or nonexistent. Policy implications include developing functional transit programs for older adults and car manufacturer training workshops to educate older adults on the safety features of newly purchased automobiles.     

Local and Regional Governments and Age-Friendly Communities: A Case Study of the San Francisco Bay Area

The purpose of this study was to assess the extent to which cities, county departments of adult and aging services, county transportation authorities, and public transit agencies in the San Francisco Bay Area have in place age-friendly policies, programs, and infrastructure in the areas of community design, housing, transportation, health care and supportive services, and opportunities for community engagement. The most common age-friendly features include those that target alternative forms of mobility (for example, incentives for mixed-use neighborhoods and changes to improve the accessibility of public transit), while the least common policies and programs are those that aim to help older adults continue driving, such as driver education programs, driver assessment programs, and slow-moving vehicle ordinances. The article concludes with policy and research implications of these findings.     

The Sandwich Generation: Dependency, Proximity, and Task Assistance Needs of Parents

This study was designed to determine the extent of sandwiched families and the impact of dependency and proximity to task assistance provided to parent(s). Data were collected in Idaho, Oregon, Utah, and Michigan from a random sample of 40–65-year-old respondents. Fifteen percent are sandwiched between needs of aging parents and financially dependent children. Respondents are much more likely to be providing assistance to mothers than fathers. Parents are most likely to live near, but not necessarily with, the respondent. Spouses and partners' parents, however, are likely to live farther away. Task assistance provided most often to aging parent(s) includes help with transportation and shopping; financial assistance was reported least often. Income of respondent and dependency and proximity of parents are significantly related to providing assistance to parents. This study offers a unique glimpse at the relationships between personal characteristics, dependency, proximity, and task assistance issues as they pertain to the sandwich generation.     

Safety implications of infotainment system use in naturalistic driving

The use of a radio while driving has long been considered a "threshold" of distraction that is socially acceptable although it may be a factor in some crashes and near crashes. This "social acceptance" has prompted the use of radio tasks, specifically radio tuning, as "references" that should not be exceeded by other secondary and tertiary tasks that make their way into the vehicle. As new functions make their way into vehicle radios (or more advanced infotainment systems), however, it is possible that radio tasks may become distracting to a level that surpasses current driver expectations. This investigation examines the naturalistic usage of several advanced infotainment systems and examines whether usage is associated first with changes in near crash occurrence and second with changes in driving behavior. Little association was found with near crashes: 5 of 46 near crash events observed in the dataset exhibited infotainment system use. Drivers involved in infotainment system use during near crashes, however, did exhibit distinct glance behaviors, generally suggesting lower levels of awareness about their driving environment. Initial analyses of a larger dataset appear to confirm these findings.     

Productive aging: a feminist critique

This essay offers a feminist perspective on the call for a "productive aging" society, and says that the movement provides an answer before we have systematically asked questions about the meaning of old age. An emphasis on productivity, among other things, can devalue relational activities, often inherent in women's roles, and certain older people-older women in particular. The author proposes a number of measures for the short term, so that society can be responsible to older women who need and want jobs, as well as ideas for more far-reaching change.     

Decentralization, aging policy, and the age of Clinton

This article examines the recent trends in decentralization and their implications for aging policy in the Clinton presidency. It first discusses a decade-long trend toward decentralizing policy and then examines some recent federal enactments that promote more discretion by state and local policymakers, suggesting that these may set the framework for aging policy during most of Clinton's first term. A basic premise of the discussion is, however, that the degree of flexibility varies with the policy area being analyzed-housing, transportation, health and social services--and whether these are "old" (pre-1980s) or "new" (post-1980s) policies. It concludes with the suggestion that a dual-centered, shared federal-state solution may provide the best approach to the premier issue in aging policy today-long-term care.