Justifications for extramarital relationships: The association between attitudes,behaviors, and gender

Married persons completed anonymous questionnaires rating the extent to which they would feel justified having an extramarital relationship for 17 reasons derived from the clinical and research literatures. Men and women clustered these justifications similarly into four factors: sexual, romantic love, emotional intimacy, and extrinsic. Women approved less of sexual justifications and more of love justifications. Attitude‐behavior congruence was demonstrated in the link between sexual justification and sexual involvement for both sexes and in the link between love justifications and emotional involvement for men. The data supported the observation that men separate sex and love; women appear to believe that love and sex go together and that falling in love justifies sexual involvement. Clinical implications include the importance of understanding the extramarital attitudes as cognitions and thresholds related to extramarital behavior. Research implications include the importance of assessing specific reasons including emotional justifications, assessing emotional involvement and sexual involvement, and analyzing for gender differences.     

Reinterpreting the economics of extramarital affairs

The empirical results for the economic variables presented by Fair (J Political Econ 86(1):45?C61, 1978) in his seminal study of extramarital affairs are puzzling within his household allocation of time framework. In particular, the theory is unable to accommodate readily the opposite signs for occupation (positive) and education (negative), assuming the wage rate is directly correlated with both variables. This paper provides a new interpretation of Fair??s estimates that accounts for the unexpected education result in terms of the association between schooling and the discount factor applied to expected future sanctions for sexual cheating. Three data sets from the United States, Germany and the United Kingdom are investigated to check the robustness of the partial correlations between infidelity and economic incentives. Taken together, the results across different countries and infidelity measures are substantially in agreement, especially for men. In a novel contribution, this study distinguishes between one off encounters, and irregular and regular forms of infidelity and finds that these are differentially related to occupation and education, consistent with theoretical predictions.     

Marital separation and extramarital sexual behavior

The factors related to the occurrence of extramarital coitus (EMC) among persons whose marriages terminate in separation or divorce and the impact of participation in EMC on postmarital adjustment were examined. It was hypothesized that premarital coital experience, quality of marital sex, length of marriage, religiosity, and physical attractiveness would affect the occurrence of EMC. Additionally, tests were performed to assess whether participation in EMC increased, decreased, or had no effect on postmarital adjustment. The data are from a study of 205 individuals, separated no longer than 26 months, who completed in‐depth, face‐to‐face interviews about their marriage, its failure, and its aftermath. Most respondents who experienced EMC report that it was an effect, rather than a cause, of marital problems. Yet respondents tend to report that their spouse's infidelity was a cause of marital problems. Guilt is a significant by‐product of EMC for men and women, but men experience somewhat less guilt. Guilt is inversely related to satisfaction with EMC. Women report a significantly greater emotional involvement with their extramarital partners than men. Females who blamed their spouse or another person for the breakup of their marriage were significantly less likely to have had EMC, but no such relationship was found among males. Religiosity does not predict EMC, but among those who have had EMC, religiosity is positively related to how long after marriage EMC first occurred. There is no relationship between the presence or absence of EMC and marital quality at time of separation. Furthermore, EMC does not appear to be related to postmarital adjustment. Other variables such as marital quality, lifestyle attitudes, perceived consequences of EMC, perceived responsibility for family members, and perception of opportunity to engage in EMC need to be studied to further elucidate the occurrence of extramarital relationships.     

An integrative intervention for promoting recovery from extramarital affairs

The discovery or disclosure of an extramarital affair can have a devastating impact on partners, both individually and on the relationships. Research suggests that affairs occur relatively frequently in relationships and are a common presenting problem in couple therapy. However, despite their prevalence, there is little empirical treatment research in this area, and most therapists describe this problem as one of the more difficult to treat. In this study, we used a replicated case-study design to explore the efficacy of an integrative treatment designed to help couples recover from an affair. Six couples entered and completed treatment. The majority of these couples were less emotionally or maritally distressed at the end of treatment, and the injured partners reported greater forgiveness regarding the affair. Details of the intervention, suggested adaptations of the treatment, and areas for future research are discussed.     

Emotional processes following disclosure of an extramarital affair

In-depth interviews with individuals who had experienced marital infidelity revealed a three-stage process following disclosure of an affair. The process starts with an "emotional roller coaster" and moves through a "moratorium" before efforts at trust building are recognized. Implications for the literature on forgiveness and the process of change in couples therapy are discussed as well as implications for future research and for practice.     

Decision-making by children

In this paper, we examine the determinants of decision-making power by children and young adolescents. Moving beyond previous economic models that treat children as goods consumed by adults, we develop a noncooperative model of parental control of child behavior and child resistance. Using child reports of decision-making and psychological and cognitive measures from the NLSY79 Child Supplement, we examine the determinants of shared and sole decision-making based on indices created from seven domains of child activity. We find that the determinants of sole decision-making by the child and shared decision-making with parents are quite distinct: sharing decisions appears to be a form of parental investment in child development rather than a simple stage in the transfer of authority. In addition, we find that indicators of child capabilities and preferences affect reports of decision-making authority in ways that suggest child demand for autonomy as well as parental discretion in determining these outcomes.

Decision-making factors in cases of child neglect

The author presents findings of an analogue study of factors that influence child protection workers' initial decision in potential cases of child neglect. Contrary to previous research findings, the subjects displayed considerable agreement in their decision making.     

试论阿盟决策制度与阿拉伯一体化的发展

阿盟采取国家间合作与协商来防止冲突的决策制度。理论上,这种决策模式只有在某些合作收益大于单方面行动成本的政策领域才会产生共同政策,但缺乏纯粹的区域层面上的有效运作;实践上,即使在共同利益较多的经济和安全领域,阿盟一体化也只在既定的制度框架下徘徊,仅能达成各国有限的、最低的共同愿望。本文用制度主义和一体化理论来透视阿盟决策制度的本质功能及其对阿拉伯一体化发展的影响,并进一步指出未来的阿盟选择何种决策制度决定着其一体化发展的方向和水平。     

试论阿盟决策制度与阿拉伯一体化的发展

阿盟采取国家间合作与协商来防止冲突的决策制度.理论上,这种决策模式只有在某些合作收益大于单方面行动成本的政策领域才会产生共同政策,但缺乏纯粹的区域层面上的有效运作;实践上,即使在共同利益较多的经济和安全领域,阿盟一体化也只在既定的制度框架下徘徊,仅能达成各国有限的,最低的共同愿望.本文用制度主义和一体化理论来透视阿盟决策制度的本质功能及其对阿拉伯一体化发展的影响,并进一步指出未来的阿盟选择何种决策制度决定着其一体化发展的方向和水平.     

Working relationships

This paper describes a workshop intended to promote greater understanding and future cooperation between health visitors, general practitioners and social workers. The workshop has been run for students on qualifying courses but its content and procedures are relevant for programmes for qualified workers. The paper outlines the aims and practice of the workshop and some of the issues arising from it.     

Commitment in same-sex love relationships

This study sought to desribe and compare commitment structures among lesbian and gay male living-together relationships, and to develop an instrument which would measure different dimensions of commitment among gay dyads without some heterosexual biases inherent in traditional measures of interpersonal commitment. Questionnaire data collected from 32 lesbians and 50 gay males who had lived together for at least six months were factor analyzed, yielding three factors: (1) intradyadic commitment, (2) extradyadic commitment, and (3) commitment-as-trust. On all three of these indices the lesbians scored somewhat higher than did the gay males, but in fact there were surprisingly few significant differences between the gay men and the lesbians. Suggestions in the data that lesbians report somewhat less social supports and are more concerned with couple boundary maintenance, whereas gay males report somewhat more jealousy and dependency, are discussed in terms of their implications for such relationships.     

Cooperative relationships in competitive markets

This paper focuses on cooperative and relationships in competitive markets. According to economic theory, stable relationships between buyer and seller should only emerge due to some kind of market deficiencies. However, our results suggest that buyer and seller cooperate and develop relationships in a competitive market. In the international salmon industry, importers tend to concentrate their import on one or a few exporters only. However, the importers will occasionally buy salmon from other exporters. This observation indicates that both cooperation and competition will be present in a competitive market. For buyers and sellers there may be efficiency gains by both cooperating and being exposed to competition.     

Decision-making capacity: the core of self-neglect

Self-neglect in the elderly is a pervasive public health issue that affects 1.2 million elderly each year. In working with self-neglect cases, ethical issues are often raised that challenge all professionals. Professional and family's wishes to remove obstacles to the wellbeing of an elderly may be directly in opposition to the individual's wishes. The core of many ethical dilemmas resides in the question of the individual decision-making capacity. Issues surrounding decision-making capacity are complex with many confounding factors. Through case-discussion, fundamental ethical issues of decision-making capacity relating to self-neglect will be explored and strategies will be offered to resolve these dilemmas.     

Lepidoptera-habitat relationships in urban parks

We examined the relationships among Lepidopteran species richness and relative abundance, field and park size, and herbaceous plant richness and cover in parks of New York, NY. Lepidopteran populations and habitats were quantified from 1 June–30 September 2002 in fields of 8 New York City (NYC) parks. We observed 42 species of Lepidoptera, with park size, field size, and plant species richness positively related to Lepidopteran abundance and species richness. Several plant species received heavy use and appeared to be important to Lepidoptera in this urban environment, particularly butterfly-bush (Buddleia davidii), mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris), knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), and clover (Trifolium spp.).     

海湾合作委员会决策机制研究

海湾合作委员会是中东地区乃至世界上一体化进程取得较大成果的区域组织之一,该组织的决策机制运作和程序规则引起学者越来越多的关注.本文从背景分析入手,梳理海合会主要职能机构的权责分配,并对其决策机制的运行、决策程序和方式进行研究,总结其特征,同时对决策机制存在的缺陷进行分析,力求透过决策机制和程序运行的发展轨迹来研究该组织决策机制的发展进程,以利于中阿双方进一步开展全方位合作.     

Premarital relationships and livelihoods in Ghana

This study is based on interviews with a sample of 400 single women aged 18-25 years from the Fante ethnic group in Cape Coast, Ghana, in 1991, and on focus groups. This case study illustrates the importance of economic and living arrangement support expected from partners in premarital relationships. Support may be for living and maintenance ('chopmoney', provisions, household items, and rent); for financial security (provision of capital); and for clothing and hairdressing. Women did not always require economic support in premarital relationships. Women expect boyfriends to provide 'chopmoney' (money for food and general upkeep) and contribute some money for the rent. Only 36% of sexually active women expected their boyfriends to supply food provisions. Premarital sexual relationships are used to obtain start-up capital. The author refers to evidence that senior government officials engaged in sexual transactions with clients before loans and credit facilities were offered. 87% of sexually experienced women expected their partners to pay for at least part of clothing expenses. The study revealed that there was considerable disparity between women's expectations and actual receipt of economic support. 56% desired, but only 36% received, 'chopmoney' in full. 40% expected their partners to pay for household furnishings in full, while only 10% did so. 55% expected capital, but only 15% received it. The three most frequently received benefits in full were hair dressing, shoes, and dresses. Men provided most non-negotiable items as a means of "boosting their egos." Many young women rely on the support of men in order to improve their status. Ghanaian men control financial resources and economic power. Mothers of adolescent daughters encourage premarital sexual behavior. Prostitution is considered different from sexual exchange relationships. It is argued that gender inequalities and domestic abuse are perpetuated through sexual exchange relationships.     

Reciprocal relationships in tax compliance decisions

Reciprocity considerations are important to the tax compliance problem as they may explain the global dynamics of tax evasion, beyond individual tax evasion decisions, toward a downward or upward spiral. To provide evidence on reciprocity in tax compliance decisions, we have conducted a laboratory experiment in which we introduced two types of inequities. The first type of inequity is called vertical, because it refers to inequities introduced by the government when it sets different fiscal parameters for identical taxpayers, while the second type of inequity is called horizontal because it refers to the fact that taxpayers may differ in tax compliance decisions. In this setting, taxpayers may react to a disadvantageous or advantageous inequity through negative or positive reciprocal behaviors, respectively. Our results support the existence of negative and positive reciprocity in both vertical and horizontal cases. When both inequities come into play and may induce reciprocal behaviors in opposite directions, the horizontal always dominates the vertical.     

Rural - Urban relationships in Indonesia

Indonesia is also experiencing a rapid urbanization process. Social and economic factors are at work for the Javanese especially, and the Sundanese, who are migrating to the cities in large numbers. Apparently a major force underlying their movement is that the population density has exceeded the carrying capacity of the rural areas. This factor is also the cause of the large scale destruction of forests.It is warned that development projects in rural areas actually increase the population density of farmers per cultivated area and worsen the urbanization process and destruction of forecasts, if they do not provide jobs to the local populace.