Pathways into Caregiving for Rural Custodial Grandparents

ABSTRACT

Although one-quarter (25%) of custodial grandparents live in rural areas, less is known about these families than their urban counterparts. This qualitative study was conducted to determine pathways into care with rural families; that is, the reasons and process into custodial grandparenting roles. Based upon interviews with fourteen grandparents, three major pathways were identified. The most common was co-residential where the parent generation exited a multi-generational household. In the incremental pathway, grandparents had attempted multiple strategies with the culmination of taking physical custody of the grandchildren. A final pathway, immediate care, was typically the result of a family crisis situation. Needs and challenges for custodial grandparents differ depending upon their unique pathway into this caregiving role.     

The Vulnerability for Elder Abuse Among a Sample of Custodial Grandfathers: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

Older adults have been known to make sacrifices in their caregiving roles. Gerontology literature on custodial grandparents has primarily focused on grandmothers and the challenges they face when they assume primary care for grandchildren. Little is known about the risks that older men face when they become custodial grandparents. This article highlights types and warning signs of abuse, exploitation and neglect. Exploratory study was undertaken with a racially diverse group of custodial grandfathers to fill a gap in the literature about the vulnerability for elder abuse, exploitation and neglect as expressed by older Black, Latino and White custodial grandfathers. To provide a more inclusive understanding of elder abuse, areas of vulnerability were identified for consideration by practitioners, educators and researchers. The implications of this research point to the need to rethink elder abuse assessment, prevention and intervention strategies with older men.     

Custodial Grandparents' Perceived Control over Caregiving Outcomes

Abstract

In this study, we explored the nature of the relationship between custodial grandparents' perception of control over caregiving outcomes and their discipline behavior with grandchildren. Perceived control moderated the relationship between frequency of difficult child behaviors and grandparents' use of strict disciplinary practices. However, unexpectedly, a high frequency of difficult grandchild behavior was associated with greater use of strict, even harsh, discipline among grandparents with highrather than low perceived control. This pattern was evidenced across the total sample; however, it was especially pronounced in African-American grandparent families. Among custodial grandparents, especially among African-American grandparents, it is possible that both nurturing and aggravation are intensified by the reparenting experience. Between-group differences may reflect the fact that grandparents embedded in different cultures have differing beliefs about how to socialize their grandchildren.     

The vulnerablility for elder abuse among a sample of custodial grandfathers: an exploratory study

Older adults have been known to make sacrifices in their caregiving roles. Gerontology literature on custodial grandparents has primarily focused on grandmothers and the challenges they face when they assume primary care for grandchildren. Little is known about the risks that older men face when they become custodial grandparents. This article highlights types and warning signs of abuse, exploitation and neglect. Exploratory study was undertaken with a racially diverse group of custodial grandfathers to fill a gap in the literature about the vulnerability for elder abuse, exploitation and neglect as expressed by older Black, Latino and White custodial grandfathers. To provide a more inclusive understanding of elder abuse, areas of vulnerability were identified for consideration by practitioners, educators and researchers. The implications of this research point to the need to rethink elder abuse assessment, prevention and intervention strategies with older men.     

Older Persons Parenting Children Who Have Lost a Parent Due to HIV

ABSTRACT

This article reviews scholarship regarding older relatives raising minor children in order to highlight the situation of caregivers raising minor children who have lost a parent because of HIV. HIV-af-fected families are a relatively new type of intergenerational grouping which deserve a closer examination. It is likely that the phenomenon of HIV-affected custodial caregiving grandparents will increase, and it is vital that policy makers, practitioners, and researchers explore their needs and assets. The particular challenges of HIV-affected grandfamilies are explored, then policy and practice issues are addressed in light of their particular relevance for HIV-affected surrogate parents.     

Granny as Nanny: Positive Outcomes for Grandparents providing Childcare for Dual-Income Families. Fact or Myth?

The proliferation of dual-income families has led to the prevalence of grandparents providing child care in Singapore. The Chinese culture and values have tasked grandparents to fill the role of providing child care while mothers seek employment. Literature on grandparents providing informal care posits this situation to be a rewarding experience and a protective factor for grandparents’ stability in old age. This study uses the Social Relational Theory framework to examine the experiences of Chinese grandparents who provide care for dual-income families in Singapore. In-depth interviews were conducted to understand the experiences of the grandparents and common themes guided by the framework. Through the exploration of the narratives of grandparents, this study sieves out the issues they face in the Singaporean context and analyzes the motivations that spur grandparents to provide care for their grandchildren. Despite informal caregiving being positively framed in many studies, this study found that grandparents also faced a variety of challenges. Chinese grandparents were bound to the caregiving roles by cultural and familial obligations despite the high costs associated with providing care.     

Grandparent-Headed Families in the United States

Abstract

Grandparents are returning to the role of parents in ever-increasing numbers. Custodial grandparents often find themselves isolated from sources of support as they face unique emotional, physical, and financial challenges on a daily basis. Nearly half are grandparents without partners and the majority are caring for two or more young children. Children in the care of grandparents are more likely to experience cognitive, emotional, and physical challenges. Their early traumatic experiences may lead to difficulties in communication and forming attachments.

The Parent Topics Questionnaire is a standardized assessment measure designed to provide parent education group facilitators with specific information about needs, desires, and expectations of participants. Administration of this instrument to four parent groups revealed a high readiness for information among the custodial grandparent population. Based on information obtained from this measure, a holistic program was developed which simultaneously provided services to care-giving grandparents, their young grandchildren, and educational professionals.

Grandparent and grandchildren's groups met weekly and emphasized topics and activities aimed at meeting common needs within these populations. Educational professionals participated in a series of inservice meetings aimed at increasing awareness of needs and strengths of grandparent-headed families, modifying curriculum to more effectively meet grandchildren's needs, and enhancing knowledge of existing resources. Pre- and post-test analysis demonstrate significant positive effects for all involved populations. Grandparents were found to increase in parenting knowledge, perceived levels of social support, willingness to utilize existing resources, and enjoyment of time with their grandchildren. Levels of isolation and perceived depression were decreased. Participating grandchildren demonstrated increased abilities to interact effectively with peers and adults and perceived their interactions with grandparents more positively. Educational professionals reported feeling more informed about custodial grandparent family issues, more confident about interacting with grandparents, and more knowledgeable about existing resources.     

Two generations at risk: child welfare, institutional boundaries, and family violence in grandparent homes

Participation of extended family members, particularly custodial grandparents, has generally resulted in better outcomes for abused children and relief for an overburdened child welfare system. This research explores the risk of adolescent perpetrated violence in custodial grandparent households with data from the Florida Department of Juvenile Justice. Findings suggest that living arrangements with custodial grandparents have a significant and differential impact on rates of violent offending for chronic and serious offenders by race and gender.     

“How Can You Retire When You Still Got a Kid in School?”: Economics of Raising Grandchildren in Rural Areas

Increasingly, grandparents are being called on to rear their grandchildren when parents are unable or unwilling to fulfill their parenting role. These grandparent caregivers often find themselves in an economic bind. Financially, most are at a stage in life where they are looking toward retirement and reduced family spending and are unprepared for their new economic reality as second-time-around caregivers. Here, we use a framework of family financial well-being to examine the economic consequences of rearing grandchildren. Based on family life interviews with 26 grandfamilies residing in Montana, we explore the challenges grandparents experience generating and shifting income streams in later life, the variability in received income, and the array of expected and unexpected expenses incurred as a result of taking in their grandchildren. As custodial grandparents strive for financial well-being, there are few resources—especially in rural areas—to help them navigate these new financial waters.     

Acceptance and Caregiving of Married and Divorced Custodial Mothers and Fathers

The study examined whether differences in gender and family status affect parental caregiving disposition and acceptance of children among parents of children in mid-childhood. The number of participants were 122 divorced-custodial fathers, 107 married fathers, 85 divorced-custodial mothers, and 82 married mothers (n?=?398). A comparison among four groups of parents revealed the following gender differences: mothers scored higher on anxious caregiving and parental acceptance than fathers, and lower on avoidant caregiving. Regression analysis indicated that the higher the caregiving avoidance or anxiety, the lower the parental acceptance. Family status moderated parental acceptance, as avoidant caregiving was associated with reduced parental acceptance among married parents, but not among divorced custodial parents. The finding that avoidant caregiving was not associated with reduced acceptance among divorced custodial parents implies that their parental acceptance behaviors toward their children are affected by their parental status as sole custodial parent, and the associated responsibilities, rather than by gender.     

Who will care for the grandparents? Exploring relationships between grandparents and grandchildren

Adult children are often identified as primary caregivers for their older adult parents; however, in a growing number of cases, the adult child does not become the caregiver. Evidence of this includes the growing social phenomenon of grandparents raising their grandchildren. In this qualitative research project, the long-term caregiving relationship between grandparents and grandchildren living in grandparent-headed households was explored through interviews with three grandparent-grandchild dyads. The ongoing relationship in the dyads did not seem to mimic a parent-child relationship or a grandparent-grandchild relationship, but instead a third kind of relationship that requires further exploration.     

Predicting child safety: the effect of custodial grandparents’ depressive symptoms,home safety,knowledge, and gender

There are over 2.5 million custodial grandparents raising 4.8 million grandchildren in the U.S. These grandparents face many major struggles, including increasing financial costs, physical disabilities, and deteriorating home environments. Our study investigates grandchild well-being, particularly the safety of custodial grandparents’ homes and its relation to injury prevention. This is crucial, as unintentional injury is the leading cause of death for children. Our model predicted child safety based on grandparent gender, depressive symptoms, and safety knowledge. Our model fit well and explained 23% of the variance in child injuries. Several gender differences were also present, for both grandparent and grandchild gender.     

The health effects of caregiving by grandparents in Taiwan: an instrumental variable estimation

Previous research on the health effects of caring for grandchildren has had variable findings, including both positive and negative effects on the health of grandparents. The estimated effects of caregiving may be affected by selection, with the health of grandparent affecting the likelihood of undertaking caregiving. The health effects of caregiving also likely differ according to the cultural motivations for caregiving by grandparents. This paper assesses whether selection into caring for grandchildren affects the estimated effects of caregiving on the health of Taiwanese grandparents. We used four waves (1993?C2003) of the Survey of Health and Living Status of the Elderly in Taiwan to estimate the effect of grandparent caregiving on self-rated health, mobility, and depression. To control for unobserved selection into caregiving, we employed time-varying instrumental variables (the number of grandchildren and marital status of adult children) in addition to person fixed effects. After adjusting for baseline differences, caregivers had better self-rated health, fewer mobility limitations, and fewer depressive symptoms compared to the non-caregivers, which suggest evidence of health improvement for grandparents. Instrumental variable analysis showed that caring for grandchildren was endogenously determined with grandparents?? mobility limitations, and grandparent caregivers benefited from a significant reduction in the number of mobility limitations. Our finding suggests that caring for grandchildren can be beneficial for the health of Taiwanese grandparents and supports our hypothesis that a culturally expected role of caregiving results in role enhancement.     

Fatherhood: Comparison Between Divorced Custodial Fathers,Married Fathers,and Divorced Non-Custodial Fathers in Israel

Paternal involvement and acceptance were compared among 218 custodial fathers, 222 married fathers, and 105 divorced noncustodial fathers. Findings show that the custodial fathers were more involved with their children, coordinated less with their children’s mother, and viewed their children as more difficult than the other fathers. Two regression analyses were conducted. One revealed that greater paternal involvement was predicted by greater self-differentiation, greater sense of having received care from one’s own father, and a less avoidant caregiving disposition. The other showed that greater paternal acceptance was predicted by greater self-differentiation, greater sense of having received care from one’s own father, and a less anxious caregiving disposition. Finally, the findings show that coparenting, social support, and sense of the child as difficult moderated the associations between the fathers’ personal variables and their involvement, but not their acceptance.     

Grandparents,kinship ties,and belonging after migration: the perspective of second‐generation grandchildren

In this article, I investigate the roles of grandparents for second‐generation immigrants who live with their parents in a different country from their grandparents. I draw on in‐depth interviews with second‐generation Vietnamese immigrants living in the Czech Republic, where they are very often raised by Czech caregivers. The carers and the children are joined through the process of caregiving and become grandmothers and grandchildren to each other. The analysis focuses on how the interviewees make sense of, interpret, and understand their roles as grandchildren vis‐à‐vis their Czech and Vietnamese grandmothers. It shows how, after migration, the kinship ties are performed, negotiated, and reproduced on a micro level of everyday life, with tasks of caring, homeland visits, and a transnational/face‐to‐face maintenance of intimacy. The article concludes that grandparents play an important role in the grandchildren's sense of belonging both to their family kin and to the homeland.     

Intergenerational Influences on Perceptions of Current Relationships with Grandparents

Abstract

The purpose of this research is to investigate inter-generational kinship variables as predictors of perceptions of current grandparent-grandchild relationship quality. A lifecourse perspective is used to demonstrate the need for consideration of the GP-GCH relationship within a three-generational, dynamic framework linking the past and present. Matrifocal kinkeeping, lineage and caregiving history hypotheses are tested in the current study. Responses from a combined sample of 321 young adult grandchildren about their relationships with their parents and all living grandparents provide the basis for the present research. GP-GCH relationship quality is the dependent variable under consideration, which combines perceived emotional closeness and frequency of contact with each of the four possible grandparent types. Independent variables tested include caregiving by grandparents during childhood, young adults' current relationship quality with mothers and fathers, and mothers' and fathers' relationships with parents and in-laws, as appropriate. Using stepwise multiple regression, GP-GCH relationship quality is predicted by a history of caregiving for the grandchild by the grandparent in question, as well as direct lineage connections, with mothers' relationships with their children and parents influencing grandchildren's relationships with maternal grandparents, and fathers' relationships with their parents and children showing similar patterns for grandchildren's relationships with paternal grandparents. The present data provide support for lineage and caregiving history hypotheses rather than matrifocal kinkeeping as predictors of intergenerational kinship patterns.     

Grandparenting in Chinese Immigrant Families

In light of the life course perspective, this semistructured interview study with 29 grandparents involved in the caregiving of their grandchildren in Chinese immigrant families revealed three major themes: intergenerational connectedness and continuity of cultural practices, role varieties and responsibilities, and adjustment and adaptation. Despite immigration, Chinese grandparents continued the tradition of providing care to grandchildren. Although the grandparent role entailed responsibilities and there were adjustments to make when living in the new place, overall, grandparents considered their caregiving experiences positive. Support to these grandparents, however, was needed at both family and community levels to ensure their stay in the United States and their continuous contribution to their adult children's lives.     

“跨代育儿组合”与中国独生子女的养育——评《中国独生子女政策与多重照顾》

独生子女的照顾与养育是城市家庭面临的重要事务。在强调相互影响的“双向模型”理论导引下,将中国城市家庭对独生子女的养育过程还原到跨代育儿的家庭系统之中,《多重照顾》由此给读者呈现了儿童作为社会行动者的能动性,展示了他们与由父辈、祖辈共同构成的跨代育儿组合的互动过程,用丰富的经验数据揭示了跨代育儿组合内部的动态性与复杂性。“双向模型”、“跨代育儿组合”等理论性概念的提出,对于中国独生子女养育的实践与研究具有重要的启发意义。     

Practitioners’ Perspectives on Choice for Older Spousal Caregivers in Rural Areas

Recent shifts toward individual choice and consumer-directed practices largely conflict with traditional expectations of familial obligation and informal caregiving. The research reported on in this paper aimed to understand how practitioners’ perspectives of spousal caregiving obligations impact on choice in rural communities. Seven focus groups were conducted in rural and outer regional areas of North East Victoria, comprising 42 practitioners who work with older couples who reside in the community. Thematic analysis revealed practitioners’ personal values and constraints of the direct practice environment impact on the experience of choice for older Australians. This discussion considers the problematic nature of choice in policy and practice for older people and their caregivers in light of these findings.     

Family support in late life: A review of the literature on aging,disability, and family caregiving

ABSTRACT

For older adults and people with disabilities in the United States, family caregiving is an important part of remaining at home and in the community. As care recipients and caregivers age, family dynamics change, and the health, social, and financial impacts of this (largely unremunerated) work have implications for individuals, families, and social policy. In this review, the authors map the literature across multiple fields related to disability and aging to understand caregiving in late life, what it means to be an older caregiver and/or to care for older people. The authors summarize the findings of 97 articles to address the care, services, and supports family caregivers provide for older adults; negative and positive impacts for caregivers serving in this role; supports that family members use or need; and societal impact of family caregiving. Much of the literature describes the work family caregivers provide and negative impacts of caregiving. Less attention is devoted to caregiving benefits, supports used by family caregivers, and societal impacts. The authors conclude with an agenda for future research that attends to the need for research that includes: more diverse samples, new types of caregivers, longitudinal data, qualitative data and analysis, and comparative research.