Migrant-native socioeconomic differentials in Thailand

Recent research has suggested that the position of many urban migrants compares favorably with that of urban natives. This generalization is refined by referring to three key distinctions: migrants from rural versus urban origins, recent versus more experienced cityward migrants, and type of urban destination. In Thailand in the early 1970s, migrants to smaller urban centers, especially the more experienced migrants, are economically more successful than migrants to the large metropolitan centers and in some cases are more successful than urban natives. Reasons for this pattern are discussed.     

Urban-rural differentials in infant mortality in Victorian England

This paper examines the magnitude of urban-rural differentials in infant mortality in England during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and also compares the timing of decline for a selection of towns of varying size, and their immediate rural hinterlands. Most towns continued to experience short-term fluctuations in infant mortality until the very end of the nineteenth century; however, in some of the adjacent rural communities--where levels of infant mortality were much lower--conditions were sufficiently favourable to allow a continuous decline in infant mortality from at least the 1860s, if not before. The final part of the paper considers the causes of these patterns and their implications for explanations of infant mortality decline.     

Ethnic dimensions of gender differentials in mortality in Malaysia

Higher mortality rates among males are a common occurrence across different cultures and countries. The causes of this higher mortality can be biological as well as behavioural in nature. The biological evidence applies across all nations and communities, but the behavioural causes, arising from the decision processes and communication strategies of individuals, will necessarily have cultural and environmental dimensions that change with time. This study examines gender disparities in mortality across ethnicity and time in Malaysia. The study shows that there is a consistent gender differential across time but it has widened for the Malays and the Indians and narrowed for the Chinese. Most importantly, it has widened considerably for young adults. Analysis of the leading causes of death show that young adult males are more likely to engage in risk-taking behaviour, and that the related causes and the extent of such causes vary across the ethnic groups.     

A reconsideration of negro-white mortality differentials in the united states

This paper summarizes the results of an investigation of the validity of Negro-white mortality differentials as reflected in the series of official United States life tables since the turn of the century. Pertinent excerpts from these often-quoted tables are reproduced in Appendix Table A-1 for convenient reference. The paper divides into two main parts.First, mortality levels and differentials beyond early childhood are derived, without use of the existing vital records, by interpreting the series of ten-year cumulative survival rates implicit in the census records for native whites and for Negroes. The results are in general agreement with the official figures, particularly for males.Second, mortality levels and differentials in early childhood are estimated by extrapolating the official 1)5 values via model life tables; that is, by the analytical procedure that would be followed in the absence of direct information on early childhood mortality. Unless it is assumed that age patterns of death for United States Negroes were extremely deviant from those found in populations with reliable census and vital statistics, one must conclude that the official figures grossly underestimate early childhood mortality for Negroes, at least for the period, 1910-40. It follows that, during those decades, Negro-white mortality differentials in terms of expectation of life at birth were also substantially higher than is suggested by the official estimates.     

Implications of socio-economic differentials in mortality for the health system

The premise of this discussion is that a systematic and continuous monitoring system is required to assemble data on the social indicator "socio-economic differences in mortality." Attention is directed to 5 particular types of data: secular trends; class differentials and age; linearity versus dichotomy; cross-cutting variables; and downward mobility and biological selection. The following 2 basic questions are examined and answered with a qualified "yes:" 1) does the health care system have any relevance to mortality differentials; and 2) can a health care system have any degree of meaninful autonomy from the overall social system. The policy implications of this analysis are reviewed in terms of the value content of medical education, the organization of the health care system, the emphasis on health, and the focus on the community. The concepts of control and power are analyzed as the key to socioeconomic differentials. Emphasis on differential exposures to "stressors" is rejected for what is termed "a sense of coherence" -- a global orientation which emerges, or fails to emerge among the lower classes, against the background of a high level of generalized resistance resources. Essentially the problem is that the constricted, emergency, powerless, and unpredictable character of lower social class existence prevents individuals of lower class and groups from being able to cope with stressors. Ways that the health care system can strengthen the sense of coherence of the lower classes include the following: a formal monitoring system in each society; caution in assuming that technological advances, environmental control, and health education are egalitarian in their consequences; and the need to identify high-risk groups within the lower classes.     

Adult mortality differentials associated with cigarette smoking in the USA

Although cigarette smoking has been extensively researched, surprising little knowledge has been produced by demographers using demographic perspectives and techniques. Thus, this paper contributes to the literature by extending a demographic framework to an important behavior for mortality research: cigarette smoking. In earlier works, the authors used nationally-representative data to show that cause of death patterns varied by smoking status and that multiple causes of death characterized smokers moreso than non-smokers. The present work extends previous analysis by estimating smoking status mortality differentials by underlying and multiple causes of death and by age and sex. Data from the 1986 National Mortality Followback Survey are related to data from the 1985 and 1987 National Health Interview Survey supplements to assess the smoking-related mortality differentials. We find that cigarette smoking is associated with higher mortality for all population categories studied, that the smoking mortality differentials vary across the different smoking status categories and by demographic group, and that the mortality differentials vary according to whether underlying cause or multiple cause patterns of death are examined. Moreover, the multiple cause analysis highlights otherwise obscured smoking-mortality relations and points to the importance of respiratory diseases and cancers other than lung cancer for cigarette smoking research.     

Estimating maternal mortality differentials using census data: experience in Honduras

High levels of maternal mortality in developing countries are considered a major public health problem. Over the past decade several international conferences on health have stated the necessity to reduce maternal mortality in developing countries. This is a challenge not only in terms of achieving it but also from the point of view of monitoring it. I use national population censuses to measure maternal mortality and study mortality regional differentials in Honduras, which identified maternal mortality in its most recent census. I also use standard demographic methods to evaluate the census data quality, for both population and death counts, and to evaluate the completeness and coverage of household death data.     

Ethnic and religious differentials in Bulgarian mortality, 1993-98

We investigated ethnic/religious mortality differentials in Bulgaria during the 1990s. The analyses employed a unique longitudinal data-set covering the entire population of Bulgaria from the census of 1992 until 1998. The mortality of Roma is very high compared to all other ethnic/religious groups. The excess applies to nearly every cause of death examined and is not entirely explained by the adverse location of Roma on social and economic variables. For young men, Muslim mortality is substantially lower than that of non-Muslims when socio-economic differences are controlled. An analysis of causes of death suggests that lower consumption of alcohol may contribute to this 'Muslim paradox'. For older Turkish women, a significant mortality disadvantage remains after controls are imposed. Suicide mortality is lower for Muslims than for Christian groups of the same ethnicity. Consistent with deteriorating economic conditions over the study period, mortality was rising, particularly for women.     

Trends and geographic differentials in mortality under age 60 in India

The study examines overall and region-specific mortality changes and regional mortality variation in India since the 1970s, using data from the Sample Registration System (SRS). An evaluation of the quality of SRS data confirms their reliability for children and adults under age 60. The results suggest the convergence of mortality across the regions of India with important inter-state differences in the pace of health improvements over time. After spectacular progress during the 1970s and the 1980s, many Indian states have witnessed slower mortality improvements in both young and adult age groups. India faces difficulties in making further reductions in infant mortality and in the burden of chronic and man-made diseases at adult ages.     

Public policy and the socioeconomic mortality differential in infancy

This paper discusses some of the findings and policy implications of a recently completed study of socioeconomic differences in infant mortality in eight metropolitan areas of Ohio at three points in time. The study revealed that, in spite of a considerable decline in the overall rate of infant mortality since 1960, the inverse socioeconomic differential remains as wide as ever. This clearly suggests that, although maternal and child health has improved overall, the lower economic groups in our society still do not have equal access either to health care or to other amenities essential to the maintenance of good health. Moreover, consideration of recent and current policy proposals with respect to welfare programs in general, and maternal and child health care programs in particular, leads to the conclusion that this situation is not likely to change in the near future. Finally, some policy recommendations for enhancing the health status of low-income families are offered.The research on which this paper is based has been supported by the Maternal and Child Health and Crippled Children's Services Research Grants Program (Grant MCJ-390520-01); Bureau of Community Health Services, HSA, PHS, DHHS.     

Black-white differentials in infant mortality in the south, 1940–1970

Demography - This paper examines the trends and variations in the black-white differentials in infant mortality in ten selected Southern states during the 1940–1970 period. The patterns...     

Religious differentials in infant and child mortality in Holland, 1855–1912

At least three kinds of hypothesis may be invoked to interpret religious differentials in mortality. They are (i) hypotheses that refer to characteristics, (ii) those that refer to lifestyle, and (iii) those that refer to the social isolation of minorities. This paper tests all three kinds of hypothesis using data on urban child mortality from The Hague just before and during the demographic transition. A hazard analysis suggests that economic and demographic characteristics do not account for much of the variation by religion. An analysis of seasonal mortality suggests that some of the variation may be explained by differences in lifestyle. The third kind of hypothesis is presented here for the first time. We suggest that the social isolation of small religious groups lowered their exposure to certain kinds of infectious disease. We use a simulation study to show that this hypothesis could account for part of the variation.     

The future of sex mortality differentials in industrialized countries: A structural hypothesis

This paper advances the hypothesis that the future of sex mortality differentials in industrialized countries may depend on the future mortality rates of blue collar men. Data are presented to support the argument that mortality rates from ischemic heart disease for this population subgroup play a significant role in current differentials and, furthermore, that sexsocial class-mortality differentials correspond to social structural differences in protection against and/or exposure to health risks. Research and policy implications of this argument are addressed briefly.The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the policy or views of the World Health Organization.     

Religious differentials in infant and child mortality in Holland, 1855-1912

At least three kinds of hypothesis may be invoked to interpret religious differentials in mortality. They are (i) hypotheses that refer to characteristics, (ii) those that refer to lifestyle, and (iii) those that refer to the social isolation of minorities. This paper tests all three kinds of hypothesis using data on urban child mortality from the Hague just before and during the demographic transition. A hazard analysis suggests that economic and demographic characteristics do not account for much of the variation by religion. An analysis of seasonal mortality suggests that some of the variation may be explained by differences in lifestyle. The third kind of hypothesis is presented here for the first time. We suggest that the social isolation of small religious groups lowered their exposure to certain kinds of infectious disease. We use a simulation study to show that this hypothesis could account for part of the variation.     

Infant mortality and socioeconomic development: Evidence from Malaysian household data

Household data from Malaysia are used to assess the roles of a number of mortality correlates in explaining the inverse relationship between the infant mortality rate (IMR) and socioeconomic development. Increases in mothers' education and improvements in water and sanitation are the most important household-level changes that accompany regional and temporal development and contribute to the inverse relationship between the IMR and development. One concomitant of development--reduced reduced breastfeeding--has kept the relationship from being even stronger. Continued prevalence of extended breastfeeding in the poorer states of Peninsular Malaysia and a narrowing of educational and sanitation differentials helped close the IMR gap between the richer and the poorer states.     

Measuring the value of statistical life: estimating compensating wage differentials among workers in India

Policy makers confronted with the need to introduce health and safety regulations often wonder how to value the benefits of these regulations. One way that a monetary value could be placed on reductions in health risks, including risk of death, is through understanding how people are compensated for the different risks they take. While there is an extensive literature on VSL and compensating wage differentials for the developed countries, few such studies exist when it comes to developing countries. Our study is an attempt at obtaining estimates of VSL that reflects Indian risk preferences. Based on a survey of 550 workers in Chennai and 535 workers in Mumbai, we find the value of a statistical life in India to be approximately Rs. 15 million. The value of statistical injury ranges from Rs. 6,000 to Rs. 9,000. Policy makers interested in programs to decrease environmental and health risks could use these numbers as one bench-mark against which costs can be assessed.

Differentials in infant and child mortality and their change over time: Guatemala, 1959–1973

This paper employs 5 percent samples of the Guatemalan censuses of 1964 and 1973 to estimate differential childhood mortality. For 1973, conventional indirect mortality estimation procedures were applied; for 1964, a modification of the Preston-Palloni technique was used. A major result is that differential child mortality widened appreciably between about 1959 and about 1968. Factors leading to mortality decline were possibly unequally spread by geographic region, rural-urban residence, ethnic groups, and educational groups. Guatemala City seems to have benefited most from the decline. Analysis of small geographic units supports these conclusions and suggests some role for public health. A by-product of the analysis was the finding that parity was understated in the 1964 census.     

Mortality differences in Norway. Two biographical data analyses and one question about female mortality differentials

"The aim of this paper is, first, to give an overview of the local history approach developed in adult mortality differentials; secondly, to present its potentiality compared with a more usual approach.... Our methodology was applied to Norwegian data."