Is Laughing at the Expense of Victims and Offenders a Red Flag? Humor and Secondary Traumatic Stress

Those who work with human trauma often use humor to handle job stressors. Research has demonstrated that lighthearted humor is related to lower secondary traumatic stress scores, while gallows humor has the inverse relationship. This work explores how three types of humor relate to secondary traumatic stress: (a) humor at the expense of victims, (b) humor at the expense of offenders, and (c) humor containing sexual innuendo. Internet crimes against children taskforce personnel completed questionnaires about secondary traumatic stress and coping techniques. Humor at the expense of victims was rarely used, but when it was, it was indicative of higher secondary traumatic stress. There were no relationships between secondary traumatic stress and the use of humor at the expense of offenders or humor containing sexual innuendo.     

The Greatest Veneration: Humor as a Coping Strategy for the Challenges of Aging

One hundred and thirty million Traditionalists and Baby Boomers are tackling the reality of aging. It may be captured by the lyrics to the Alan Menken–Tim Rice song “A Whole New World.” The salient characteristics and experiences of these two generations are examined along with a few of the mental and physical challenges they are encountering. Then the research on and applications of humor and laughter to these challenges are reviewed. Particular attention is given to the psychological, physiological, and medical studies that have specific implications for seniors. Coping strategies to deal with daily life challenges are described in terms of detachment from crises and problem situations and coping with interpersonal conflict. The Coping Humor Scale is provided for readers to assess their own coping skills. Then a list of techniques seniors can use to improve their own coping skills, including how to search for humor opportunities, is provided. Despite the potential research-based benefits of humor and laughter, their application to the lives of seniors are not well known. Those benefits should be part of the trend toward complementary or alternative medical treatments over the past two decades. It does not get any more “alternative” than “humor.”     

Secondary traumatic stress, psychological distress, sharing of traumatic reminiscences, and marital quality among spouses of Holocaust child survivors

In this study, we examined the issue of secondary traumatic stress (STS) among spouses of Holocaust survivors who were children during the World War II. STS is defined as comprising the same components as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), except that the person evidencing the symptoms has not actually been exposed to the traumatic event(s), but has developed them as a result of caring for someone with PTSD. Participants were 90 couples who completed self-report questionnaires regarding posttraumatic symptoms, psychological distress, and marital quality. The results showed that about one-third of the spouses suffered from some degree of STS symptoms. Secondary traumatic stress symptoms and psychological distress among spouses were significantly related to hostility, anger, paranoia, and interpersonal sensitivity in the survivor, but unrelated to whether the survivor had shared his/her reminiscences with the spouse. Female spouses were found to suffer more distress than male spouses, especially when their partner suffered high levels of PTSD. The results suggest that STS is, to a large degree, related to the demands of living with a symptomatic survivor, possibly more than to the empathic element thought to be central to this syndrome.     

Depressive Symptoms and Their Association With Adverse Environmental Factors and Substance Use in Runaway and Homeless Youths

We used diathesis‐stress and stress‐sensitization models to determine whether family maltreatment, street‐related traumatic events, stressful life events, and substance use were associated with depressive symptoms in runaway and homeless youths (RHY) in Los Angeles. Greater severity of depressive symptoms was significantly related to family maltreatment, being exposed to more traumatic stressors during homelessness, and current substance use compared to no substance use. Family maltreatment was also found to moderate the relationship between traumatic stressors and depressive symptoms. Importantly, cumulative exposure to the investigated risk factors at varying levels was associated with more severe depressive symptoms. Using a trauma‐informed approach to screen for RHY at risk of depression may pave the way for secondary prevention of major depression in RHY.     

Risk and protective factors for secondary traumatic stress and burnout among home visitors

ABSTRACT

The overarching goal of this study was to understand the context of home visitor secondary traumatic stress and burnout, and how this might affect intention to quit among home visitors, particularly focusing on potential risk factors and supportive strategies identified by the home visitors. All home visitors providing services in the state in which the research was conducted (N = 27) completed a structured interview and a quantitative survey at two time points, 6 months apart. Results indicated that more than two-thirds of the home visitors experienced either medium or high levels of secondary traumatic stress and burnout over the course of the study. Approximately one quarter of home visitors indicated thinking of leaving their present positio. Qualitative data indicated that risk factors associated with burnout included those related to both direct and non-direct services. Risk factors associated with secondary traumatic stress included traumatic stress of families, inability to recognize one’s own experiences of secondary traumatic stress, and unhealthy work culture. In terms of protective factors, home visitors strongly emphasized the importance of having a supportive supervisor who they could trust and communicate with openly.     

Social work students in the aftermath of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita: correlates of post-disaster substance use as a negative coping mechanism

Social work students’ post-disaster coping while in the field is an important workforce issue with ethical implications. The current study utilized secondary data collected in a previous study examining post-disaster alcohol and other drug (AOD) use among social work student volunteers (N = 416) in the wake of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita (HKR). The current sample included participants from the original study who responded to a single-item measure of AOD use as a negative coping mechanism (N = 290). The present study examined potential explanatory variables of AOD use in the aftermath of HKR, including demographic (age, gender, and race) and psychosocial characteristics (hurricane-related stressors, previous traumatic stressors, and post-traumatic stress). The multivariate logistic regression model distinguished between students who never or rarely used AOD and those who used AOD often to cope with HKR, accounting for 24% of model variance. Social work students who report post-disaster AOD use may risk experiencing additional, trauma-related vulnerabilities, should be further assessed, and provided necessary specialized supports to enable their well-being and to prevent impaired practice.     

Coping with Family Conflict and Economic Strain: The Adolescent Perspective

This study tested two models of family economic problems and adolescent psychological adjustment. Using adolescents’ survey data and information regarding school lunch program enrollment, the associations among family SES, perceived economic strain, family conflict, and coping responses were examined in a sample of 364 adolescents from rural New England. Two theoretical models were tested using structural equation modeling — one tested coping as a mediator of the stress – psychopathology relation and the other tested coping as a moderator. Results revealed that family economic hardship was related to aggression and anxiety/depression primarily through two proximal stressors: perceived economic strain and conflict among family members. Family conflict partially mediated the relation between economic strain and adolescent adjustment, and coping further mediated the relation between family conflict and adjustment. These analyses identified two types of coping that were associated with fewer anxiety/depression and aggression problems in the face of these stressors — primary and secondary control coping. Although primary and secondary control coping were associated with fewer adjustment problems, youth who were experiencing higher amounts of stress tended to use less of these potentially helpful coping strategies and used more of the potentially detrimental disengagement coping. The models did not differ according to the age or gender of the adolescents, nor whether they lived with two parents or fewer. No support was found for coping as a moderator of stress. Implications of these findings and suggestions for future research involving coping with economic stressors are reviewed.     

Atheistic, agnostic, and religious older adults on well-being and coping behaviors

Previous research reports relationships between religion and both well-being and positive coping, especially among the older adult age group. However, researchers have failed to consider the non-religious when comparing groups categorized by religious belief, ignoring possible differences between those with a belief and the non-religious, atheists, and agnostics. To explore possible differences, we gathered data from a sample of 134 religious and non-religious older adults (55 years old plus) who completed an online questionnaire assessing relationships between religiosity and well-being, social support, locus of control, and meaning in life. Belief groups, including atheists, agnostics, and those high and low on religious beliefs, were compared on coping behaviors. The religious groups did not significantly differ from atheists and agnostics on well-being, satisfaction with social support, or locus of control; however, the high religiosity group did endorse higher levels of presence of meaning in life than the atheists and a greater number of social supports compared to the non-religious groups. The groups significantly differed on their use of religious coping (p < .05), and differences approached significance on the groups utilization of humor and substances as coping mechanisms (p = .07). The religious groups endorsed religious-oriented coping at significantly greater rates, whereas the atheists endorsed a greater use of substances to cope than the other three groups. Additionally, atheists endorsed humor for coping more so than their low religiosity counterparts.     

The Role of Humor Styles and Shared Laughter in the Postdivorce Recovery Process

ABSTRACT

Humorous communication has the potential to bolster resilient outcomes in individuals, and this could be especially true postdivorce. Framed by the resilience model and the stress buffering hypothesis, this study examined humor styles and shared laughter as coping mechanisms following divorce. Results indicate that participants (N = 89) who used self-defeating humor experienced physical stress, the time since the divorce was finalized influenced stress and rumination, and physical stress symptoms are suppressed by shared laughter with a source of social support. The implications of humor as an individual resource and shared laughter as a social resource in postdivorce resiliency are discussed.     

Professional quality of life of adult protective service workers

Adult Protective Services (APS) workers are exposed to substantial occupational hazards and job stress, but these stressors are underdocumented. Therefore, we sought to describe APS workers’ work environments and responses to occupational hazards and stressors, including compassion fatigue, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress. Survey data were gathered with closed-ended questionnaires administered to APS workers in an urban setting. Virtually all workers (97%) reported exposure to one or more environmental hazards in their work, and 80% reported hazard exposure in the past month. Workers also reported mixed responses to their work environment and to experiences with supervision. A sizable minority (22.7%) was at high risk for burnout, 24.6% were at risk for secondary traumatic stress, and 19.9% reported low compassion satisfaction. The results document multiple stressors in APS work. The APS partner is committed to ongoing efforts to better support its staff, and these findings can inform future efforts to enhance supervisor support and worker self-care, to minimize burnout and secondary traumatic stress.     

'My Mum and Dad said it Calms You Down': Children's Perceptions of Smoking as a Coping Strategy

While studies have shown that adults use smoking to deal with stress, little research has been carried out with children to explore their perceptions of smoking as a coping strategy. Qualitative questionnaire and interview data were generated with children aged 9–11 years. Participants perceived that adults smoked to relieve boredom and stress, and suggested that children might smoke for the same reasons. Children were more likely to know that adults smoked to deal with stress if they lived in a deprived area. Girls were more likely to believe that some children need to smoke as a coping strategy.     

Stress and impact of spirituality as a mediator of coping methods among social work college students

ABSTRACT

This exploratory pilot study was conducted to understand the stress level and coping strategies of social work students, with the aim to develop strategies to help students increase their ability to manage stress. The study examined the levels of stress perceived by the students in a faith-based program, identified their coping methods, and explored the impact of spirituality on the perceived stress level. A significant association between students’ stress levels and their coping methods existed among all the measures. Adaptive coping methods, such as Active Coping, Positive Framing, and Religion, were significantly correlated with lower levels of stress, while maladaptive coping methods, such as Behavioral Disengagement, Self-Distraction, Denial, Substance Abuse, Venting, and Self-Blame were correlated with higher levels of stress. Spirituality had a greater buffering effect on the students’ ability to handle stress. The higher the level of student spirituality the less likely the students were to have higher levels of stress and the more likely they were to use adaptive coping methods rather than dysfunctional coping methods. This study discusses the important ramifications of reducing stress in college students especially in a faith-based program, as well as strategies for reframing how stress and coping methods are viewed so as to better help students for current and future social work education and practice landscapes.     

Predictors of secondary traumatic stress among children's advocacy center forensic interviewers

This study examined various predictor variables that were hypothesized to impact secondary traumatic stress in forensic interviewers ( n = 257) from children's advocacy centers across the United States. Data were examined to investigate the relationship between organizational satisfaction, organizational buffers, and job support with secondary traumatic stress using the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale. The most salient significant result was an inverse relationship between three indicators of job support and secondary traumatic stress. Also significant to secondary traumatic stress were the age of interviewer and whether the forensic interviewer had experienced at least one significant loss in the previous 12 months. Implications for future research, training, program practice, and policy are discussed.     

Hope Floats: African American Women's Survival Experiences after Katrina

This article describes how 15 African American women 18 to 55 years of age coped with traumatic life events during and in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. The study's main question is how did African American women cope with traumatic events during and following Hurricane Katrina? Second, we explore how the intersection of race, gender, and social class influenced their experiences. An exploratory design of primary and secondary data using grounded theory methods generates a mid-level theory about resilience, spirituality and coping among Black women in the aftermath of the storm.     

Vicarious traumatization,secondary traumatic stress,and burnout in sexual assault and domestic violence agency staff

This study investigated three occupational hazards of therapy with trauma victims: vicarious trauma and secondary traumatic stress (or "compassion fatigue"), which describe therapists' adverse reactions to clients' traumatic material, and burnout, a stress response experienced in many emotionally demanding "people work" jobs. Among 101 trauma counselors, client exposure workload and being paid as a staff member (vs. volunteer) were related to burnout sub-scales, but not as expected to overall burnout or vicarious trauma, secondary traumatic stress, or general distress. More educated counselors and those seeing more clients reported less vicarious trauma. Younger counselors and those with more trauma counseling experience reported more emotional exhaustion. Findings have implications for training, treatment, and agency support systems.     

Predictors of Secondary Traumatic Stress among Children's Advocacy Center Forensic Interviewers

This study examined various predictor variables that were hypothesized to impact secondary traumatic stress in forensic interviewers (n = 257) from children's advocacy centers across the United States. Data were examined to investigate the relationship between organizational satisfaction, organizational buffers, and job support with secondary traumatic stress using the Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale. The most salient significant result was an inverse relationship between three indicators of job support and secondary traumatic stress. Also significant to secondary traumatic stress were the age of interviewer and whether the forensic interviewer had experienced at least one significant loss in the previous 12 months. Implications for future research, training, program practice, and policy are discussed.     

Stress,Coping, and Mood Among Latino Adolescents: A Daily Diary Study

The current study examines whether daily coping moderates the effects of daily stress on same‐day mood and next‐day mood among 58 Latino adolescents (M_age = 13.31; 53% male). The daily diary design capitalized on repeated measurements, boosting power to detect effects and allowing for a robust understanding of the day‐to‐day experiences of Latino adolescents. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed that on days when youth reported higher levels of peer and academic stress, they also reported more negative moods. However, only poverty‐related stress predicted mood the following day. Engagement coping buffered the effect of poverty‐related stress on next‐day negative and positive mood, while disengagement exacerbated the effects of academic and peer stress. The need for interventions promoting balanced coping repertoires is discussed.     

Childhood abuse history,secondary traumatic stress,and child welfare workers

Social workers are exposed to trauma vicariously through the trauma of their clients. This phenomenon, called secondary traumatic stress, vicarious traumatization, or compassion fatigue, presents a risk of negative personal psychological consequences. Based on a sample of 166 child welfare workers and using standardized measures, the study findings document the link between a personal history of primary trauma, childhood abuse or neglect, and the heightened risk for secondary traumatic stress in child welfare workers.     

Self-blame and stress in undergraduate college students: The mediating role of proactive coping

Objective: This study aimed to examine the mediating relationship of proactive coping on self-blame and stress among US undergraduate college students. Participants: The sample of undergraduate college students (n?=?261) were recruited through their Introduction to Psychology course and registered for the study through a research-based computer program utilized at the university in the fall 2010 and spring 2011 semesters. Methods: Participants voluntarily completed a battery of self-report questionnaires that measured self-blame, proactive coping, and stress. Correlation and regression-based mediation analyses were utilized to address the study objectives. Demographic differences were explored using comparative analyses. Results: Proactive coping was identified as a mediator between self-blame and stress. Correlation analyses revealed self-blame, proactive coping, and stress were interrelated with one another. Ethnicity differences were observed on proactive coping. Conclusions: Proactive coping mediated the relationship between self-blame and stress and was negatively related to the other included behavioral constructs.     

The Use of Humor With Older Adults Aging in Place

As more older adults seek ways to remain in their homes during their “golden years,” humor has proven to be a worthwhile intervention that reduces stress and provides a hopeful, playful, and optimistic environment. Development of creative and supportive housing situations for older adults combined with the use of modern technology (e.g., the Internet and computer devices used in the home), aid in bringing humor to the older adult. This article addresses some of the challenges that older adults face and the way that the use of humor can assist them to meet these challenges.