Boundaries and Family Practices: Implications for Assessing Child Abuse

SUMMARY

Family practices related to hygiene, affection behavior, and privacy were studied using a sample of mental health and child welfare professionals. The professionals were asked to use their own experience to state up to what age it was acceptable for parents and children of the same gender and mixed gender to engage in certain family practices. For virtually all family practices, respondents reported lower appropriate ages for mixed gender pairs. Family practices were acceptable for mothers with their daughters up to older ages than fathers with their sons. Results indicate high variability in the responses regarding appropriate ages, as well as whether the behavior was ever acceptable. The implications of these substantial differences among professionals who often assess these practices as “soft signs” related to abuse are discussed.     

Investigating the Victim Pseudomaturity Effect: How a Victim’s Chronological Age and Dress Style Influences Attributions in a Depicted Case of Child Sexual Assault

Three-hundred and seven members of the UK public read a hypothetical child sexual abuse case in which the victim’s chronological age (12 versus 15 years old) and dress style (sexualized versus nonsexualized) were experimentally manipulated before completing 22 assault severity and blame attribution items. It was predicted that the 15-year-old and the sexually dressed victim would be blamed more for her own abuse. In addition, males were expected to be more blaming generally, but especially of the older and/or sexually dressed victim. Results were generally in line with predictions, highlighting the role seemingly controllable victim characteristics play in blaming child sexual abuse victims. Findings are discussed in relation to defensive attributions, gender stereotyping and the newly suggested victim pseudomaturity effect. Criminal justice, victim welfare, and rape myth implications together with methodological issues and ideas for future research work are also considered.     

Boundaries and family practices: implications for assessing child abuse

Family practices related to hygiene, affection behavior, and privacy were studied using a sample of mental health and child welfare professionals. The professionals were asked to use their own experience to state up to what age it was acceptable for parents and children of the same gender and mixed gender to engage in certain family practices. For virtually all family practices, respondents reported lower appropriate ages for mixed gender pairs. Family practices were acceptable for mothers with their daughters up to older ages than fathers with their sons. Results indicate high variability in the responses regarding appropriate ages, as well as whether the behavior was ever acceptable. The implications of these substantial differences among professionals who often assess these practices as "soft signs" related to abuse are discussed.     

Family characteristics of children in cases of alleged abuse and neglect

Information is presented about the family composition, structure and significant relationships of 2069 children referred to an English social services department for suspected abuse and neglect. Of these children, 373 (18%) were subsequently placed on the child abuse register. Very few members of extended families were recorded as being significant in the lives of these children. Contrary to earlier research, less than one‐third of children lived with a lone or unmarried mother. However, children whose parents were married and living together were less likely to be registered. Nearly half of the mothers and one‐fifth of the fathers of registered children were aged 21 or less at their child's birth. Compared to all those referred, a significantly larger number of children registered were conceived by younger or older men. Two in five of the siblings of registered children were under 6, and the younger the siblings, the more likely the child was to be registered. Children with two or more siblings were also more likely to be registered. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Changing Sibship Size and Educational Progress During Childhood: Evidence From the Philippines

This paper investigates the association between changes in coresident sibship size and children's educational progress in the Philippines. When conceptualized at the household level, sibship size is a dynamic aspect of the family context with potentially important implications for resources needed to support a child's education. Individual‐level change models suggested that adding younger siblings in early childhood (from birth to age 9) and losing both younger and older siblings later in childhood (from age 9 to 19) were associated with less educational progress by the focal child between ages 9 and 19. These effects were additive and indicated the importance of assessing both type of change and timing in evaluating the relationship between coresident sibship size and educational progress during childhood.     

Perceptions of Blame and Credibility Toward Victims of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Differences Across Victim Age,Victim-Perpetrator Relationship,and Respondent Gender in a Depicted Case

This study investigated victim culpability, credibility, and assault severity in a hypothetical sexual abuse case. A 2 (respondent gender)?×?3 (victim age)?×?3 (perpetrator type) between-subjects design was employed. Members (391) of the U.K. general public read the depiction of a female child assaulted by an adult male perpetrator. Respondents then completed an attributions questionnaire. Findings showed that male respondents were less positive toward victims and considered the victim less credible than female respondents. Younger victims (aged five years) were considered more credible than older children (aged 15 years). Victims of strangers were considered more positively and more credible than victims of someone known to them (their father or a family friend). Suggestions for future work are proposed.     

Patterns of child abuse in early childhood,a cohort study of the ‘children of the nineties’

In order to study patterns of child abuse in a pre‐school population, we have looked at children within a local cohort who have been investigated for abuse or placed on the Child Protection Register. This is part of a larger study examining risk and protective factors for child abuse. Of 14 138 children enrolled in the cohort, 329 were investigated for suspected child abuse and 163 were placed on the Child Protection Register over an 8‐year period, representing rates of 10.6 – 23.3 per 10 000 per year. Physical injury and neglect accounted for 31.7% and 29.0% of registrations in the study group respectively, these proportions being similar to those for children of all ages in Avon. In contrast, sexual abuse accounted for 10.9% compared to 21.1% for all ages. Emotional abuse represented just 2.8% of investigations but 25.1% of all registrations in the study group, compared to 14.4% of registrations for all ages. Two hundred and fifty‐five (1.8%) parents reported physical cruelty to their children by themselves or their partner at some stage in the first 3 years; 772 (5.4%) reported some emotional cruelty. The importance of emotional cruelty to children is increasingly being recognized by professionals, but even more so by parents, whose concerns relating to both physical and emotional cruelty are not being identified by current procedures. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Impact of Complex Family Structure on Child Well‐being: Evidence From Siblings

Evidence from the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort on children at ages 3 and 5 with older siblings addresses the questions of whether those living with both biological parents and only full siblings have better emotional and behavior outcomes than other children, and whether nonfull siblings affect children's outcomes independently of parents' partnership status. Adjusting for measured family circumstances and resources in cross‐sectional regressions accounted for much of the adverse association of family complexity with child outcomes. Controlling for unobserved family and child fixed effects did not, however, attenuate all estimates further. Fixed unobservable factors appeared to be masking underlying associations. Allowing for them intensified some, albeit modest, estimates. These revealed excess externalizing behavior problems for boys with single or stepparents but only full siblings. For girls with single mothers, the chances of internalizing problems were raised. Whether siblings were full or not made little difference to outcomes in general.     

Experiences of Biological Parents and Their Older Children in Out-of-Home Care for the First Time

This article will examine the parenting characteristics and challenges that faced a cohort of families participating in an exploratory qualitative research study. This study sought to describe the experiences and characteristics of parents whose children were placed in the child welfare system in early-to-late adolescence (ages 12–18), thus gaining an understanding of the parenting challenges faced as they were able to maintain their children in their homes for a significant portion of their lives. The families of older youths entering care for the first time described how alcohol and drug abuse impacted their relationships with children, significant others, jobs, and their mental health status. A significant issue that emerged in several of the cases were older children who initiated a report to child welfare themselves.     

Conscription of children in armed conflict—a form of child abuse. A study of 19 former child soldiers

Armed combat in childhood is a form of child abuse. It may lead to serious consequences, including post‐traumatic stress disorder. The inherent emotional abuse and acts or omissions by caregivers may cause behavioural, cognitive, emotional or mental disorder in the child. Nineteen former child soldiers were interviewed in a rehabilitation centre using a standard questionnaire. Reasons for recruitment included: volunteered (18), hatred of enemy (revenge) (5), virtue of being a freedom fighter (martyrdom) (9), as a means of supporting their family (economic) (3). One child was abducted, 7 joined for fear of the ‘enemy’ abducting them, and in 5 a family member was killed by ‘enemy’ or own group. The children were involved in manual labour (15), guard duty (15), front‐line fighting (7), bomb manufacture (5), setting sea/land mines (5) and radio and communication (2). Fifteen were trained in firearms and 14 in self‐destruction. Twelve children attempted to or did run away and 11 refused to obey orders or argued. This led to various punishments, including kitchen duty, beatings, imprisonment, blackmail or death threats. A majority of the children felt sad and emotionally upset when they remembered their mother and family. Children's involvement in war, whatever the ‘justifications’ may be, should always be considered as forced, as they cannot truly comprehend their action in war. The responsibility must be taken by the adult caregivers. The following definition of the abuse of children in armed conflict is proposed: ‘The involvement of dependent, developmentally immature children and adolescents in armed conflict they do not truly comprehend, to which they are unable to give informed consent, and which adversely affects the child's right to unhindered growth and identity as a child’. Firm international agreement on guidelines for the lower age limit of recruitment of children into armed forces is required. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Gender Differences in the Characteristics and Outcomes of Sexually Abused Preschoolers

ABSTRACT

This study examined whether sexually abused preschool boys and girls (ages 2–5) differed in terms of abuse characteristics or psychological outcomes. A retrospective chart review of 74 cases of sexually abused children (29 boys and 45 girls) treated at an urban mental health clinic in Maryland was conducted. Information was collected on: (1) demographics; (2) abuse characteristics (victim's age, type of sexual abuse, relationship to perpetrator); (3) abuse discovery pattern (accidental vs. purposeful); (4) children's symptomatology; and (5) child and familial factors. No differences were found between boys and girls in terms of the victim's age at the time of abuse, perpetrator's age, or the identity of the perpetrator. However, boys and girls experienced different forms of abuse; boys were more likely to experience fondling, oral and anal intercourse. The majority of boys and girls were abused by males, typically someone they knew (biological parent/parent figure or relative). No differences were evident in the type of disclosure; however, older children were more likely to self-disclose than younger children. Results indicated that boys exhibited more developmental delays and aggressive symptoms than girls. Clinical implications of these findings are discussed as well as recommendations for future research.     

Judgments regarding parental alienation when parental hostility or child sexual abuse is alleged

Abstract

Allegations of Parental Alienation (PA), the systematic disparaging of one parent by the other parent aimed at alienating their child’s affections, as a basis for child custody decisions are highly controversial. Claims of parental hostility or allegations of child sexual abuse in custody cases may trigger concerns about PA. Family court professionals (N?=?280) rated young children’s accuracy of report (e.g., suggestibility, honesty) in general and also read three custody scenarios varying as to whether or not they included allegations of parental hostility or child sexual abuse, or no such allegations. For each scenario, the alleged alienating parent’s gender was experimentally varied between subjects. Participants rated the likelihood that each case involved PA. For the scenario that included allegations of child sexual abuse, professionals who viewed young children as more inaccurate reporters or who read about the mother (rather than a father) as the alleged alienator were more likely to rate the scenario as involving PA. For the scenario that described parental hostility but no child sexual abuse allegations, professionals who were older or female were more likely to judge the scenario as involving parental alienation when a mother (rather than a father) was the alleged alienator, whereas there were no significant predictors of responses to the no-allegation scenarios. Findings are discussed in relation to the difficult task of evaluating custody cases for PA when parental hostility or child sexual abuse is alleged.     

Where Are the Children? Extent and Determinants of Preschoolers' Child Care Time

According to the 1988 National Health Interview Child Health Supplement, half of all children under age six attended nonparental child care on a regular basis. Close to a quarter of all children spent 40 or more hours per week in care. Average time in care was 30.5 hours for children in care. Statistical tests indicate that (a) the predictors of whether parents use any child care differ from the predictors of the number of hours care is used, and (b) estimates for children under three years of age differ from estimates for children from three to five years of age. The probability of attending care is related to a child's age, mother's education, race, family type, number and age of siblings, type of adults living in the household, income, poverty status, and region and size of the community in which a family resides. For children from three to five years of age, hours in care are associated with child's age, mother's education, race, family type, siblings, income, poverty status, and region. For children under three years of age, relatively few factors (mother's education, race, siblings, and region) predict the number of hours spent in child care.     

Psychological Symptoms of Sexually Victimized Children and Adolescents Compared With Other Maltreatment Subtypes

The differential effects of sexual victimization and other forms of maltreatment on psychological functioning are not well understood. A sample of sexually victimized children and adolescents (N = 70; 6.3–17.9 years) and a group of youth with a history of nonsexual maltreatment (N = 108; 6.7–16.9 years) were compared using measures of mental health and psychosocial functioning. Assessments included standardized clinical interviews on individual maltreatment history and current psychopathology as well as questionnaires on behavioral and emotional symptoms, including posttraumatic stress symptoms. The results from this study suggest that the risk of experiencing any current mental disorders was independent of type of maltreatment. The risk of meeting the criteria for a current diagnosis of major depression, however, is greater among youth with a history of maltreatment that includes sexual victimization. The significant impact of sexual victimization on posttraumatic stress symptoms was found to be nonsignificant after controlling for age and gender effects. The results indicate that the outcomes of child maltreatment depend on type of maltreatment, but age and gender must be taken into account.     

Disclosure of Child Sexual Abuse as a Life‐Long Process: Implications for Health Professionals

One of the aims of this research project was to develop a fuller understanding of the process of disclosure of child sexual abuse. Face‐to‐face in‐depth interviews were conducted with 22 men and women aged 25 to 70 years old, who had an early sexual experience at the age of 15 or under with someone of 18 or over. Narrative inquiry methodology was used and data was analysed using Rosenthal and Fischer‐Rosenthal's (2004) process of data analysis. Disclosure can be conceptualised as a complex and life‐long process, and most participants did not make a selective disclosure until adulthood. The findings extend Alaggia's (2004) model of disclosure to include the life stage and the person to whom the disclosure is being made. The main barriers to disclosure and possible gender differences are discussed. Family therapists need to manage the challenges inherent in disclosure of child sexual abuse at any age.     

Child Welfare and Juvenile Justice: Examining the Unique Mental Health Needs of Girls

This study investigated the prevalence of mental health problems among girls who are involved in child welfare or juvenile justice systems. The sample consisted of 1,193 girls ranging in age from 4 to 18, the majority (82.3%, n = 982) of which were older than age 12. Differences based on race/ethnicity and developmental age groups were examined. Consistent with other research, this study found that the mental health needs of girls involved in the child welfare or juvenile justice systems are several times higher than in the general population. Intervention approaches must be developed that take into consideration differences in gender, age, and racial and ethnic group.     

African-American Undergraduates' Perceptions and Attributions of Child Sexual Abuse

This study examined perceptions of child sexual abuse and attributions of responsibility in a cross-sectional convenience sample of 384 African-American undergraduates using a scenario manipulating the age of the victim, gender of the victim, and gender of the perpetrator. Multiple interactions of respondent, victim, and perpetrator gender on perception of intrafamilial child sexual abuse and attributions of responsibility for victim, perpetrator, and parents were obtained. These results extended previous research conducted on primarily Caucasian samples and highlighted the moderating role of gender of the respondent for this ethnicity.     

Child abuse,child protection and disabled children: a review of recent research

This paper reports the results of a scoping study that reviewed research about child abuse, child protection and disabled children published in academic journals between 1996 and 2009. The review was conducted using a five stage method for scoping studies. Several studies have revealed a strong association between disability and child maltreatment, indicating that disabled children are significantly more likely to experience abuse than their non‐disabled peers. Those with particular impairments are at increased risk. There is evidence that the interaction of age, gender and/or socio‐cultural factors with impairment results in different patterns of abuse to those found among non‐disabled children although the reasons for this require further examination. It appears that therapeutic services and criminal justice systems often fail to take account of disabled children's needs and heightened vulnerability. In Britain, little is known about what happens to disabled children who have been abused and how well safeguarding services address their needs. Very few studies have sought disabled children's own accounts of abuse or safeguarding. Considerable development is required, at both policy and practice level, to ensure that disabled children's right to protection is upheld. The paper concludes by identifying a number of aspects of the topic requiring further investigation. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Trends in US Army child maltreatment reports: 1990–2004

We present the victim rates and severity of child maltreatment in US Army families by the sex of the child and parent from 1990–2004. Neglect rates decreased from a high point in 1991 to a low in 2000, but by 2004 the rates had increased to about the 1991 level. During two large‐scale deployments of the US Army to the Middle East (1991 and 2002–2004), the rates of neglect increased. Neglect rates were highest for the youngest children and decreased as age increased. Physical abuse rates decreased from 1990–2004, but the decline was slowed during 2001–04. Physical abuse was more severe by male offenders. Emotional abuse showed wide fluctuations in rates. Emotional abuse rates were similar for boys and girls up to age 11, but the rates for older girls were higher. Sexual abuse had the lowest rates throughout the time of this report, decreasing from about 0.5/1000 to about 0.1/1000. The rates of physical abuse and neglect were generally higher for boys than for girls up to the teenage years when the rates reversed. Male offenders were more likely to maltreat children (even excluding sexual abuse) than were female offenders and offenders of both sexes were more likely to abuse male children. We provide suggestions for practice, prevention and research in child maltreatment. Published in 2008 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Recidivism Among Child Sexual Abusers: Initial Results of a 13-Year Longitudinal Random Sample

In the initial analysis of data from a random sample of all those charged with child sexual abuse in Idaho over a 13-year period, only one predictive variable was found that related to recidivism of those convicted. Variables such as ethnicity, relationship, gender, and age differences did not show a significant or even large association with recidivism. The only variable that seemed to show both a significant and almost moderate association to recidivism was the Risk Assessment in the Sex Offender Evaluation reoffense. Comparisons were made to prior research as well as a discussion of implications of the sex offender evaluation for the legal process. Finally, a call for the continued need for further research is discussed.