Dimensions of Gender Occupational Differentiation in Segregation and Inequality: A Cross-National Analysis

The present research: (a) distinguishes between measures of gender occupational segregation and measures of gender occupational inequality, and (b) examines whether occupational segregation and occupational inequality are differentially related to structural characteristics of national labor markets. Analysis of data from 56 nations shows that measures of nominal segregation are not equivalent to measures of hierarchical inequality. Nominal segregation seems to increase with industrialization and in the presence of service industries but decreases as female labor force participation increases. By contrast, occupational inequality seems to decrease with industrialization and in the presence of service industries but to increase as both female labor force participation and level of educational inequality rise. The data further demonstrate that nominal segregation and ordinal status inequality are interrelated. Where nominal segregation is high, women's relative representation in high status occupations tends to rise. We argue that occupational segregation should not be equated with occupational inequality, and that theoretical propositions regarding gender-occupational segregation may not be applicable to issues concerning occupational inequality. We obtain a better understanding of, and insight into the nature of gender-occupational differentiation by simultaneously considering these two dimensions of gender-occupational differentiation.     

Industrial shifts,female employment,and occupational differentiation: a dynamic model for American cities, 1960–1970

Sex-linked occupational differentiation has been seen as influenced by both the industrial structure of the economy and the sex composition of the labor force. Here, with a sample of 70 SMSAs, it was found (a) that the odds of men relative to women of joining professional and managerial occupations increased between 1960 and 1970, and (b) that this increase was dependent on the growth of tertiary industries and the greater number of women joining the cash economy. The observed effect of industrial shifts on sex-occupational differentiation, however, is argued to be a spurious consequence of the gender-composition of the work force. Specifically, the development of tertiary industries generates greater demand for female labor. Intensive recruitment of women to the labor force in turn increases occupational differentiation because females, in sex-typed labor markets, are likely to be channeled in disproportionate numbers away from upper-status occupations. The findings demonstrate that traditional modernization theory is unable to account for this. However, the results lend support to expectations derived from a labor market sex-segmentation approach.     

1990-2010年广州青年人口增长及其社会构成变动

本文采用人口普查数据分析了1990-2010年广州青年人口数量增长与受教育程度、婚姻状况和职业构成变动特征.广州青年人口绝对规模扩大、增速下降和相对规模收缩.人口迁移流动是青年人口增长变化的最主要因素.青年人口的受教育程度构成由中低层次向中高层次转变,未婚为主、已婚有配偶居次的婚姻构成更趋向未婚状况,职业以体力劳动者为主、正逐步向高级化转变.这些社会构成存在性别和年龄差异.     

Age structure of the workforce in growing and declining industries: evidence from Hong Kong

Industry-specific human capital reduces the incentive for older workers to leave declining industries and raises the incentive for younger workers to join growing industries. Using the industry restructuring experience of Hong Kong, we find that a 1% increase in employment share of an industry is associated with a 0.60-year decrease in the average age of its workforce. The relationship is more pronounced among less educated workers, who have less general human capital, and male workers, who are more committed to the labor force, than among well educated workers and female workers.     

The changing U. S. labor force and occupational differentiation by sex

The degree of occupational differentiation by sex in the U.S. labor force is examined utilizing various measures and occupational classifications over the period 1900-1970. A consideration of comparable occupations over time indicates that while occupational differentiation by sex is still substantial, an irregular, measurable decline in that differentiation has occurred during this century. Existing labor force structure seems relatively unimportant in explaining this ongoing change. Apparently more significant are social and historical factors as they have influenced specific occupations in certain decades.     

新生代农民工就业条件行业差距实证研究

本文利用全国流动人口动态监测调查数据,选取流动人口典型就业行业（包括制造业、建筑业、批发零售和住宿餐饮业）。探讨行业之间就业条件差距的代际变化情况,分析新生代农民工丁资、劳动强度、社会保险状况等就业条件的行业差距及其影响因素。研究结果表明,不同行业农民工就业条件的代际差距有明显扩大趋势,反映出行业发展的不均衡与部分劳动者的权益损害。行业待遇差距过大,将会恶化劳动力供给结构不均衡,甚至加剧近些年出现的“用工荒”现象,不利于我国宏观经济的健康发展。     

产业结构升级与劳动就业的相关性分析

产业结构升级与劳动力充分就业之间存在相互依存又相互制约的关系。现阶段 ,我国面临着产业结构升级与劳动力供给大量增加的矛盾。解决这一矛盾 ,应合理寻择产业结构升级的重点 ,增加人力资本投资 ,大力发展第三产业和中小企业。     

北京投资结构调整与劳动产业流动分析

调整产业投资结构 ,转变城市功能 ,发展适合北京特点的第三产业 ,促进了劳动力由第一产业和第二产业向第三产业流动。本文就这一流动进行了量化分析     

Occupational and industrial contextual indicators in income determination models for Australia

Contextual variables, such as average education, gender composition, ethnicity and unionization, influence individual incomes differently when aggregated to occupations and to industries. Discriminatory effects exerted on income by ethnic and gender segregation in occupational labor markets are in some cases counterbalanced by segregation in industrial labor markets. Employment in different industries influences income irrespective of individual characteristics of the employees and irrespective of aggregate characteristics of their occupations. This impact of industrial location is also independent of organizational characteristics of the industries, even if the choice of characteristics is determined by the economic segmentation theory.     

Immigration and free trade with Mexico: protecting American workers against double jeopardy

Free trade may well increase immigration from Mexico to the United States before ultimately slowing it down. Rapid population growth, unemployment or underemployment of half the labor force, and vast ethnic and kinship links to the United States have given Mexican migration a stubborn momentum. Increased prosperity from free trade will give many would-be migrants the means to resettle in the U. S. Foreign competition will displace Mexican workers in small farms, state-owned enterprises, and less competitive industries, forcing some to migrate. The noneconomic incentives and expectations driving migration will also remain strong. Mexicans may see free trade as making the border a mere formality or as conferring an entitlement to live in the United States. On the U. S. side, free trade may well deepen the government's traditional complacency about border controls. Over the long-term, however, a successful free trade agreement could reduce immigration by improving Mexico's democracy and the quality of life, diminishing the prospects of mass asylum movements from Mexico, creating a better climate for effective family planning, and luring marginal, immigration-magnet industries from the U. S. to Mexico. In the United States, less- skilled American workers in some industries and regions can expect job displacement and other disruptions from free trade. Particularly vulnerable will be workers in perishable crop agriculture, border retail trade, construction, apparel, and light manufacturing such as furniture, auto parts and glass. Continued heavy immigration of Mexican and other foreign workers into those industries and communities will further impede the adjustment of resident workers by competing for jobs and consuming public resources needed for retraining and job search. To ease the adjustment of displaced workers, the U. S. must make Mexico's cooperation in restraining immigration a condition for free trade. Mexico's cooperation should include enforcement of its own laws against clandestine border crossing; action against alien smugglers, document forgers and transiting illegal aliens from Central America; and curbs on the reentry of aliens deported from the United States. U.S. initiatives that would cushion vulnerable American workers against the added disruption of immigration would be: better identification and screening of applicants for public assistance; tightened enforcement of safety and labor standards in immigrant-impacted firms and provision of legal workers to such firms; protection of public assistance resources through better screening and identification of applicants; and curbs on imports of temporary foreign workers for firms that will now have access to Mexican labor in Mexico. Finally, the United States must consistently press Mexico for higher safety, environmental and labor standards at the workplace to improve the job satisfaction and quality of life of working Mexicans who might otherwise migrate, as well as to narrow Mexico's labor cost advantages over the United States.     

Some population characteristics of villages differentiated by size,location, and growth

Selected social characteristics of individuals were examined for groups of villages simultaneously dichotomized by size, location relative to larger cities, and population change. The percent of people having a selected characteristic in each village group of the resulting eight-fold classification was taken as the dependent variable, and difference scores indicating main effects and first order interactions were obtained for each characteristic. The universe is the 375 incorporated places under 2500 in 1950outside the SMSAs of Wisconsin. Size of place was found to be important for the sex ratio, education and income levels, and labor force and occupational variables. Characteristics associated with nearness to a large city included income, male labor force participation, occupation, and industry. Growth was important for age and sex differences, education, income, and some labor force, occupation, and industry variables. An interaction between location and growth was found for several occupation and industry characteristics. The consistency between some of the results and previous research on larger places supports the contention that villages, although classified as rural, share many characteristics of urban centers. The industry and occupation differences by location, and the interaction between location and growth, strongly suggest that location is tied closely to function here. Places near cities over 25,000, especially those that are growing, may serve as residences for commuting blue-collar workers, or perhaps as small manufacturing centers, while most places more remote from cities continue to function as small service centers for a rural hinterland.     

Social structure and the female labor force: The case of women workers in muslim Middle Eastern countries

In terms of quantitative comparative data Middle Eastern countries report systematically the lowest female participation rates in economic activities outside of agriculture. This behavior represents a deviation from the current experience of other developing nations and from the historical experience of the now-industrialized West. Using comparative data on female employment patterns in Latin American countries which are at roughly a similar stage of economic development, it is shown that the low level and particular character of women's involvement in the work force in the Middle East can be explained by institutional arrangements contingent upon aspects of social structure. Five countries are selected for intensive analysis: Chile, Mexico, Egypt, Morocco and Pakistan. One major aspect of social organization and its cultural adjuncts is emphasized: The interplay between the volitional avoidance by women of certain occupational sectors because of the social stigmatizing aspect and the prohibition of occupational opportunities imposed by males. The combined effects of this tradition of female seclusion and exclusion are confirmed by the detailed analysis of the structure of the non-agricultural labor force: Middle Eastern women are absent systematically from occupational and industrial sectors of employment which involve public activity and presuppose contact with males.     

Occupational status scores: Changes introduced by the inclusion of women

This paper examines the impact of women’s labor force participation on occupational scores by comparing occupational status scores based on the characteristics of the 1970 male labor force with a set of occupational status scores based on the characteristics of the total 1970 labor force. Although the two sets of scores are highly correlated, important differences are found in the scores for specific occupations as well as for major occupational groups. Using the traditional list of 12 major occupational categories, we find that the positions of clerical workers and craftsmen are reversed when status scores are derived from data on all incumbents in the labor force rather than on male incumbents alone. The paper suggests that, with the increased participation of women in the labor force and the concomitant change in the sex composition of the work force, the traditional approaches to the measurement of occupational status based solely on male incumbents may no longer be valid for examining the occupational hierarchy of contemporary American society.     

The Impact of Local Labor Market Conditions on Work and Welfare Decisions: Revisiting an Old Question Using New Data

Using Maryland administrative data between 1996 and 2005, this paper examines the impact of local labor market conditions on work and welfare use among single mothers. Our estimates rely on the new Census Bureau Quarterly Workforce Indicators database, which provides county-level economic indicators filtered by industry, gender, and age-group. We specify a multinomial choice model to estimate the effects of these local labor market variables on the full set of work–welfare combinations. The results indicate that lower unemployment rates and increased new hires and new hires’ earnings in key industries increase the likelihood that women choose alternatives that include work. African American women and those with fewer years of education respond differently to changing economic conditions. Our results are robust to controls for fixed effects, county-specific time trends, and endogenous migration.     

Veteran Status,Income, and Intergenerational Mobility Across Three Cohorts of American Men

Existing research linking prior military employment with labor market outcomes has focused on comparing the relative income of veterans and nonveterans. However, people who join the armed forces are uniquely selected from the broader population, and the form and direction of selectivity has shifted over time, with differential enlistment rates by race, region, and socioeconomic status. Understanding changes in the demographic composition of enlistees and veterans has significant import for the study of social mobility, particularly given changes in the occupational structure since the mid-twentieth century and wage stagnation well into the new millennium. Furthermore, labor market polarization and increases in educational attainment since WWII raise additional concerns about the social origins of military personnel and their occupational trajectories after discharge. Using data from the National Longitudinal Surveys, we investigate how social background is linked to both income and occupational mobility among veterans from three cohorts of American men: World War II, Vietnam, and the All-Volunteer Force. We find few benefits for veterans, for either income or intergenerational occupational mobility, once social background is controlled, suggesting that selection into the armed forces largely governs outcomes in the civilian labor market. Our findings have significant importance for understanding civilian labor market outcomes and trajectories of social mobility during distinct phases of military staffing.     

Economic development and fertility change in Mexico, 1950–1970

This paper is an attempt to isolate the determinants of fertility in Mexico. Of the variables included, two are significant in accounting for differences in the level of completed fertility in the 32 "states" in 1970. They are the share of the labor force in agriculture, which is directly related to fertility, and the percentage of the population speaking an indigenous language, which shows an inverse relationship.The most important factors acting to reduce total fertility rates over time are increases in life expectancy and declines in the share of the labor force in agriculture. However, based on the estimated linear relationship, these two variables by themselves are not adequate to achieve a rapid decline in fertility in the future.     

新时期传统经济特区生产服务业协调发展与产业升级研究——基于深圳市产业—就业结构的实证

经济特区在国际产业转移和区域协调发展过程中实现了跨越式发展,新时期传统经济特区外向型发展模式面临巨大压力。生产服务业有着较强的就业吸纳能力,能实现制造业与服务业融合发展,促进区域产业结构优化升级。以外向型发展模式为代表的传统经济特区深圳为例,实证分析了生产服务业产业—就业结构协调发展,发现深圳生产服务业在国民经济中是劳动力转入产业,各细分产业有较大差异,但对劳动力转入有一定要求,存在供需结构性矛盾。在此基础上提出了促进生产服务业产业—就业结构协调发展的对策与建议。     

Age stratification at work: Trends in occupational age segregation in the United States, 1950–2000

This paper adjudicates between competing accounts of recent trends in the amount and patterning of occupational age segregation. These accounts rely on narratives about: (1) the decline of age-graded mobility, (2) the rise of occupational volatility, and (3) the existence of dual labor markets, in particular increasingly bimodal age distributions in low-skill occupations. Using new log-multiplicative models and related methods, the findings show that overall age segregation declined between 1950 and 1990, which is consistent with the decline of age-graded mobility. Among women, though not among men, the findings show increasingly bimodal age distributions in particular low-skill occupations, which is consistent with a dual labor market. Starting in 1990, age segregation increased among men and may have increased among women, which is consistent with the occupational volatility narrative.     

改革以来中国劳动生产率的增长因素：基于产业结构的分析

改革开放以来,伴随着经济的快速成长,我国的劳动生产率在迅速提高。本文利用指数方法,从产业结构的角度实证分析了改革以来我国劳动生产率的增长因素。结果发现．劳动生产率增长的主要来自产业内部的纯生产率效应,而就业结构变动的贡献既不稳定,也不显著。在产业间劳动生产率差距不断扩大的背景下,本文最后讨论了我国劳动生产率增长中就业结构变动贡献不足的原因。     

The effect of immigration on the internal migration of the native-born population, 1981–1990

This study examines the impact of immigration on the labor market opportunities of the native-born population by looking through the window of migration. We use Current Population Survey data to analyze the one-year migration patterns of Anglos and Blacks and include the presence of recent immigrants in the origin and (potential) destination US states among the covariates. Our departure model employs a logit specification to predict outmigration (vs not) from the state during the year prior to the survey. Our arrival model uses a conditional logit discrete choice specification with sampling among the alternatives to predict destination state. The data are taken from the 1981, 1984, 1987, and 1990 Current Population Surveys. This work adds to other knowledge of the migratory response of workers and sheds light on theories of substitution and complementarity in labor markets. States with high levels of recent immigration are less likely to retain Anglo workers or receive new Anglo interstate migrants, but this apparent substitution effect is partially offset by the presence of long-term immigrant stock. Lower skilled Anglos are more susceptible to this substitution effect than those of higher skill level. In the black population, results are more complex. Lower skilled blacks are less attracted to high immigrant locations, but African-Americans of higher skill level in selected occupations and industries are predicted to be more likely to remain in or choose states with many recent immigrants.