Understanding the mobility chances of children from working-class backgrounds in Britain: How important are cognitive ability and locus of control?

Research in social stratification has shown that children from working-class backgrounds tend to obtain substantially lower levels of educational attainment and lower labor market positions than children from higher social class backgrounds. However, we still know relatively little about the micro-level processes that account for this empirical regularity. Our study examines the roles of two individual-level characteristics—cognitive ability and locus of control—in mediating the effect of individuals’ parental class background on their educational attainment and social class position in Britain. We find that cognitive ability mediates only about 35% of the total parental class effect on educational attainment and only about 20% of the total parental class effect on respondents’ social class position, net of their educational attainment. These findings contradict existing claims that differences in the life chances of children from different social class backgrounds are largely due to differences in cognitive ability. Moreover, we find that although individuals’ locus of control plays some role in mediating the parental class effect, its role is substantially smaller than the mediating role of cognitive ability. We measure individuals’ social class positions at different points in their careers—at labor market entry and at occupational maturity—and find that the mediating roles of cognitive ability and locus of control are remarkably stable across individuals’ working lives.     

THE IMPACT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND HUMAN CAPITAL ON WAGES

Historically, economists have taken the position that psychological capital is either unobservable or immeasurable; thus, heretofore, little evidence has been available on the contribution of psychological capital to wages. Using data drawn from two different waves of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, we offer evidence that psychological capital has both a direct effect—via self-esteem—and an indirect effect—through locus of control—on an individual's real wage. We find a person s wage is more sensitive to changes in self-esteem than to comparable alterations in human capital. Both relative wages and human capital contribute to self-esteem.     

Parental Attachment Among Korean–American Adolescents

The present study examined the relationship between parental care and control perceived by Korean–American adolescents, and further investigated the relationships between parental attachment styles and mental health measures including self-esteem, depression, and social support. The relationship between parental care and parental control resulted in a significantly negative correlation. Parental care showed significantly positive correlations with self-esteem and social support, and a negative correlation with depression. Parental control showed a significantly negative correlation with self-esteem, and a significantly positive correlation with depression. The analysis demonstrated that optimal parenting showed significantly higher self-esteem, lower depression, and higher social support than the other groups.     

Organisational factors, individual characteristics and social support: what determines the level of social support?

A large body of research has linked social support to health, but there are fewer studies that have focused on factors that influence the level of social support available and/or perceived by employees in different organisations. This cross-sectional study therefore investigated the relationship between on the one hand, organisational, individual and socio-demographic factors and on the other, the level of social support at the workplace, i.e., the degree of supervisor support and a supportive work atmosphere. Organisational variables (job demands, job control, job content), individual (self-esteem, mistrust) and socio-demographic variables (type of employer, occupational position, age, gender and educational level) were used as independent variables in the analyses. The sample consisted of 16,144 individuals at a variety of different organisations in Sweden, who had responded to a questionnaire covering different psychosocial and psychological stress factors ("the Stress Profile"). Multiple hierarchical regression analyses were performed separately for each of the two dependent variables, which yielded almost identical results, and indicated that organisational determinants, particularly perceived job control, had the largest impact on the degree of social support.     

Social Class and Expectations of Rural Adolescents: The Role of Parental Expectations

This study investigated mechanisms involved in the intergenerational transmission of social class, specifically addressing the prediction of career expectations. The results indicated that among rural high school students (N= 200) in Grades 10–12, there was no direct effect of socioeconomic status (SES; as measured by parent education and occupation) on career expectations. However, there was a direct effect of educational expectations on occupational expectations. Building on the importance of educational expectations in the prediction of occupational expectations, the results suggested that perceived parental expectations explain variance in educational expectations. Overall, it seems that the effect of SES on occupational expectations was mediated by educational expectations; therefore, individuals of lower SES who have increased educational expectations are more likely to have occupational expectations similar to those of their higher SES peers. Moreover, increased parental expectations were positively associated with educational expectations among individuals of various SES levels.     

Testing the modernization hypothesis and the socialist ideology hypothesis: a comparative sibling analysis of educational attainment and occupational status

In this study, we present a comparative sibling analysis. This enables us to test two major social mobility hypotheses, i.e. the modernization hypothesis and the socialist ideology hypothesis. We employ survey data on brothers in England, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Spain, and the USA, covering a historical period from 1916 till 1990. Results show that the effects of parental social class on educational attainment are smaller in technologically advanced societies, and that the effects of parental social class on occupational status are smaller in social-democratic and communist societies. In addition, the total family impact on occupational status declines with modernization. But overall, we observe that the family of origin has not lost its importance for its sons' educational attainment and occupational status yet.     

Trauma-Related Beliefs as Mediators of Sexual Abuse Impact in Adult Women Survivors:

A 56-item measure of trauma-related beliefs was piloted with 59 female adult sexual abuse survivors. The measure includes four internally-consistent subscales which assess beliefs reflective of Finkelhor and Browne's (1986) traumagenic dynames model: Self-Blame/Stigmatization, Betrayal, Powerlessness, and Traumatic Sexualization. Multiple regression analyses examined the relationships between trauma-related beliefs and other psychological/behavioral outcomes. Self-Blame/Stigmatization beliefs predicted lower self-esteem, interpersonal problems, depression, anxiety, and overall psychological distress. Betrayal beliefs predicted interpersonal problems, an external locus of control, and sexual problems. Powerlessness beliefs predicted lower self-esteem, depression, and external locus of control, and sexual problems. Powerlessness beliefs predicted lower self-esteem, depression, and external loxus of control. Traumatic sexualization beliefs predicted anxiety and sexual avoidance. Results are discussed in terms of implications for theoretical model development and treatment planning for sexual abuse survivors.     

AUTONOMY IN WORK AND SELF-ESTEEM

The relationship between work experience and self-esteem is an important one for social psychologists interested in how social structure affects personality. Research on this relationship has consistently documented the importance of autonomy in work for self-esteem. This research has failed, however, to closely examine the meaning of autonomy within the workplace culture and, therefore, has also failed to see how this meaning allows autonomy to contribute to self-esteem formation in a variety of ways. Because of these problems the relationship between autonomy in work and self-esteem, though heavily researched, has yet to be adequately described. Based on a theoretical analysis of self-esteem formation and field research in five work organizations, this article attempts to develop a more complete view of the relationship between workplace autonomy and self-esteem.     

THE ROLE OF PARENTAL RELIGIOSITY IN HIGH SCHOOL COMPLETION

Scientists have produced a modest literature documenting the associations between individual religious behaviors and educational outcomes. Most scholars hypothesize that religion provides a context of social capital in which students reap educational benefit (or detriment) from the adults in the religious community. Despite the intergenerational influence inherent in the various social capital explanations, few studies have directly examined the role of parental religiosity in the educational outcomes of adolescents. In this study, I begin to address this gap by investigating whether and how parental religiosity is associated with a student's chances of graduating from high school. I seek to answer three questions related to parental religiosity and students’ high school graduation. First, does parental religiosity affect a student's chances of graduating from high school? Second, if parental religiosity is associated with high school graduation, does it operate primarily through the student's own religiosity or is there an independent effect? Third, if parental religiosity is independently associated with a student's high school graduation, what are the mechanisms by which it is associated? Using data from the first and third waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), I find that students whose parents attend religious services more often have greater odds of completing high school, and students who attend religious services with parents are almost 40% more likely to finish high school, net of a number of other religious and sociodemographic factors.     

Characteristics of Female Students Who Aspire to Science and Engineering or Homemaking Occupations

This study identified predictors that discriminated between nontraditional and traditional career aspirations in a sample composed of 930 eighth-grade female students (52 Asian Americans, 123 Hispanics, 61 African Americans, 669 Whites, and 15 Native Americans). Results indicated that the students who aspired to careers in science or engineering scored significantly higher on educational aspirations; perceived parental expectations; student-reported grade point averages (GPAs); and mathematics, reading, and science test scores than did girls who aspired to homemaking occupations. They also scored higher on measures of self-esteem, internal locus of control, socioeconomic status, and had fewer siblings. Educational aspirations, parental expectations, self-reported GPA, and science proficiency were the best discriminators between the groups. Results also indicated that differences in the distributions of career aspirations across racial-ethnic groups were significant.     

THE CORRELATES OF HEALTHY FAMILY FUNCTIONING: THE ROLE OF CONSENSUS AND CONFLICT IN THE PRACTICE OF FAMILY THERAPY

The present study explores the relative importance of individual, dyadic and triadic measures of intrafamily functioning in predicting family health. Using self-report data from 78 families, it was found that dyadic measures pertaining to marital quality and parent-child relationships were more powerful predictors than either individual measures of emotional maturity, anxiety, self-esteem or locus of control, or triadic measures of the families' hierarchical alignments. The study also found that while mothers' and fathers' assessments of intrafamily functioning were more important than the childrens' (except for the childrens' view of parent-child relationships), the parents differed in that marital quality was more important to the mothers' evaluations of the family unit while parent-child relationships were more important to the fathers'. Compositely, the findings suggest that family health is a complex multidimensional phenomenon, and that change in a particular dimension of family life may not necessarily be greeted with consensual validation or repudiation by all family members.     

Social origin,field of study and graduates’ career progression: does social inequality vary across fields?

Research on stratification and mobility has consistently shown that in the UK there is a direct impact of social origin on occupational destination net of educational attainment even for degree‐holders. However, only a few studies applied a longitudinal and dynamic perspective on how intergenerational mobility shapes graduates’ working careers. Using multilevel growth curve modelling and data from the 1970 British cohort study (BCS70), we contribute to this research by looking at the emergence of social inequalities during the first ten years since labour market entry. We further distinguish between graduates of different fields of study as we expect social disparities to develop differently due to differences in initial occupational placement and upward mobility processes. We find that parental class does not affect occupational prestige over and above prior achievement. Separate analyses by the field of study show that initial differences in occupational prestige and career progression do not differ between graduates from different classes of origin in STEM fields, and arts and humanities. It is only in the social sciences that working‐class graduates start with lower occupational prestige but soon catch up with their peers from higher classes. Overall, our results indicate no direct effect of social origin on occupational attainment for degree‐holders once we broaden our focus to a dynamic life course perspective.     

Italian College Student-Reported Childhood Exposure to Parental Alienation: Correlates With Well-Being

Two hundred and fifty-seven undergraduate psychology students in Chieti, Italy completed an anonymous and confidential survey regarding their childhood exposure to parental alienation, psychological maltreatment, and measures of current functioning. Results revealed high levels of reported exposure to parental alienation behaviors by those whose parents divorced or separated and by those who reported that—regardless of marital status—their parents’ relationship was “very bad.” Those with any exposure to parental alienation reported higher rates of parental psychological maltreatment, lower rates of parental caring, as well as poor functioning with respect to self-esteem, depression, adult attachment styles, alcohol abuse, self-direction, and cooperation. These findings support the theory that parental alienation represents a risk factor for compromised outcomes across the life span.     

The moderating role of parental warmth on the effects of exposure to family violence

Previous research has shown parental warmth to have mixed effects on individuals in violent families. While positively associated with psychological health in some victims, parental warmth has also been positively associated with measures of psychological distress in other victims. The current study examined two models (the "buffering" and "inconsistency" theories) to clarify the effects of parental warmth. The current study also sought to clarify the role of parental warmth within the context of exposure to different types of family violence (i.e., witnessing versus victimization). Results differed depending on the type of violence exposure. Both mother and father warmth were negatively associated with secure attachment and self-esteem in combined victims and witnesses of violence, whereas, mother warmth was positively associated with self-esteem in witnesses of violence. Father warmth did not significantly impact either outcome for witnesses. Parental warmth did not influence either outcome for those who had only experienced victimization.     

OCCUPATIONAL GROWTH AND THE EXPANSION OF EDUCATIONALLY-RELATED EARNING GAPS

I develop an argument that facilitates understanding of how occupational growth impinges on the relationship between education and earnings. Much of the literature focuses on workers employed at the ends of the occupational hierarchy, whereas my contribution applies to workers positioned all along the occupational hierarchy. I argue that an undersupply of affordable, suitable labor in expanding occupations encourages a division of labor among workers who vary in educational attainment. This division of labor, in turn, leads to greater educationally-related earnings inequality—even among workers who hold similar positions in the occupational hierarchy. Such a development can become pervasive because expanding occupations exist throughout the occupational hierarchy and because educational attainment among workers varies within most occupations. In declining occupations, a different set of conditions pervades, and these conditions facilitate employers' efforts to control their wage-bill by compressing educationally-related earning gaps. A hypothesis is derived from these arguments and tested on a nationally representative sample. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis, suggesting the arguments considered here help explain how the relationship between education and earnings is influenced by whether workers are employed in expanding or in declining occupations. Consequently, this research improves our understanding of how earnings inequality among individuals is linked to structural transformations in the economy.     

Parental Factors,Psychological Well-Being,and Sibling Dynamics: A Mediational Model in Emerging Adulthood

The purposes of the current study were to assess the impact of parental divorce on psychological well-being in general and on sibling dynamics in particular. Driven by recent advances in systems orientation, the study assesses the interconnection between divorce, perceived parental marital satisfaction, psychological well-being, and sibling dynamics and evaluates the interconnection between sibling relationship quality, perceived parental marital satisfaction, and psychological well-being outcomes in emerging adulthood. Three hundred and ninety-two college students completed indices of parental marital status and satisfaction, sibling relationship quality, and psychological well-being. Positive associations between perceived parental marital satisfaction and sibling closeness and communication were found. Perceived parental marital satisfaction was also found to be positively associated with self-esteem and life-satisfaction. Sibling closeness and warmth was positively correlated with satisfaction with life. Perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between parental divorce and sibling closeness as well as the relationship between parental divorce and sibling communication. Furthermore, perceived parental marital satisfaction was found to mediate the relationship between sibling closeness and life-satisfaction. The current study contributes to a growing body of literature assessing parental variables, sibling relationships, and well-being in emerging adults. The results highlight the importance of examining the mechanisms through which separation/divorce impact outcomes.     

Strengths of Gay Male Youth: An Untold Story

This exploratory study found that gay male youths develop strengths that enable them to successfully cope with the challenges and stresses associated with their overall development. These internal and external resources were (1) protective in nature, (2) indicated the presence of resilience, and (3) assisted participants in managing their sexual orientation in adolescence. Bivariate analysis revealed participants had positive self-esteem and an internal locus of control comparable to, or better than, youths overall. Age, social support from gay, lesbian, and bisexual friends and from family, and a preadolescent sense of difference were significantly correlated with self-esteem and/or locus of control.     

PARENTS' PERCEPTIONS OF THEIR ADOLESCENT CHILDREN,PARENTAL RESOURCES,AND PARENTS' SATISFACTION WITH THE PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP

Building on Belsky's process model of the determinants of parenting and using a nationally representative dataset of U.S. adolescents, this article examines the relationship between parental satisfaction and parents' perceptions of their adolescents and their own personal and social resources. As such, it provides a coherent framework for understanding parental well-being during a critical stage of the family life course. The results suggest that parental satisfaction is negatively related to parents' perceptions that their adolescents are involved in problem behaviors or experiencing challenges in other domains of their lives; however, the relationship between parental satisfaction and adolescents' problem behaviors is mediated by parents' perceptions of their adolescents' characters, including whether or not they have a bad temper and their levels of trustworthiness. With respect to personal and social resources, parents' educational achievement and marital status are positively related to parental satisfaction, and the level of conflict in the spousal relationship is negatively related to parental satisfaction.     

Do parental assets matter for children's educational attainment?: Evidence from mediation tests

This study investigates (1) the effects of parental assets on children's educational attainment from high school completion to college degree attainment, and (2) mediating roles played by parental involvement, child's educational expectations, and child's self-esteem. The study sample (N = 632) is drawn from the Child and Young Adult data supplement to the National Longitudinal Study of Youth 1979. Results indicate that parental assets are associated with children's later educational attainment. Financial assets and home-ownership are significantly associated with high school completion and college attendance. In addition, family income becomes non-significant when specific measures of assets and liabilities are taken into account. Non-financial assets and income are significant predictors of college degree attainment. Children's educational expectations mediate the effect of financial assets on high school completion. Empirical evidence provides support for asset-building programs and policies designed to promote long-term educational attainment.     

Individual and Familial Correlates of Body Satisfaction in Male and Female College Students

Abstract

Objective: This study investigates the relative contributions of global self-esteem, body mass index (BMI), dieting behaviors, and perceived parental control and care on body satisfaction among a nonclinical sample of college students. Participants and Methods: Participants (49 males and 299 females) reported weight and height (to calculate BMI) and completed the EAT 26 test. Perceived parental care and control, global self-esteem, and body satisfaction were measured and examined in relation to BMI and dieting behavior. Results: High BMIs were associated with lower body satisfaction for both genders; dieting behavior, self-esteem, and perceived parental care and control demonstrated a unique gender-specific association among variables in prediction of body satisfaction and dieting behavior for each gender. Conclusions: Body satisfaction as a part of global self-esteem is constructed differently by males and females. Various aspects of parenting (care and control) are associated with self-esteem and body satisfaction for each gender, influencing dieting behavior.