Two Components of Wage Gaps Induced by Individual-level Variables: Intra-firm or Inter-firm?

Individual-level variables such as gender, education, occupation, and employment type are well-known factors that induce wage gaps in the labor market. This article aims to divide wage gaps into two components—those arising within each firm (the intra-firm wage gap) and those arising between different firms (the inter-firm wage gap)—and measure their respective proportions by individual-level variables, as studies suggest that each wage gap based on an individual-level variable has a unique mix of an intra-firm and inter-firm wage gap. This measurement can help enrich investigation into the generative process of wage gaps and formulate effective labor policies to reduce them. Accordingly, we compared the coefficients of the independent variables of the wage function estimated by a pooled ordinary least squares model and a fixed-effect model, using nationwide employer–employee matching data collected by the Japanese government. We found that wage gaps by gender and employment type mostly consist of intra-firm wage gaps, and those by education and occupation have a larger share of inter-firm wage gaps. The findings suggest that different research strategies are required to investigate the generative process of each wage gap, and that regulations on and interventions in organizational processes are important to reduce wage gaps based on gender and employment type.     

The future of PR education: Some recommendations

This article contends that public relations is a professional occupation that has become more than a subset or specialization of other disciplinary areas. Perspectives of professional and disciplinary areas that have had a strong influence on public relations education must be reevaluated.The integrity of public relations professional education must take precedence over academic unit perspectives and biases; furthermore, public relations as a professional occupation is ideological—with its own set of professional values and beliefs. The new Commission on Public Relations Education must recognize public relations is an occupation that requires its own identity as well as clearly defined professional parameters.     

以职业核心能力提升为导向的纺织经贸创新人才培养途径研究

职业核心能力是成功就业和可持续发展的“关键能力”，是当今世界发达国家、地区职业教育和人力资源开发的热点。研究以职业核心能力提升为导向的创新纺织经贸人才培养途径的重要性，并对其创新人才培养途径进行具体探讨。     

Alternative Stratification Systems: the Case of Interpersonal Respect among Leisure Participants1

This case study illustrates the importance of recognizing the existence of multiple stratification systems based on criteria other than occupation, education, and income. In particular, the article examines the respect hierarchy which exists among a community of leisure participants, and examines the extent to which several sets of criteria can “account” for that hierarchy. The criteria which are employed include such widely used work- related measures as occupation and income, as well as leisure-related abilities, expressions of leisure-related ideals, and expressions of commitment to the leisure activity. The leisure activity under study is a form of auto racing known as “autocrossing.” Data are collected by means of a mailed questionnaire. The findings indicate that criteria involving occupation, education, and income account for very little of the respect that participants feel toward one another. Subsequent analysis reveals that leisure-related abilities are highly associated with respect, and expressions of commitment to the leisure activity are moderately associated with respect.     

German dual system education to occupation education in China

Made in Germany has earned a global reputation and its strong industrial base is inseparable from the "dual system" occupation education. So now German economy is in the front rank of the world. Our country is in the new period of reform and opening-up, economic development needs of a large number of new talents. In our country occupation education has been belongs to the weak link, influence of socialist modernization construction. This paper mainly focuses on the German "dual system" education characteristic, as well as the implementation basis. Combine our country occupation education present situation, it can inspire our country to reform the education system to respond to future development.     

Social learning within a community of practice: Investigating interactions about evaluation among zoo education professionals

The accessibility and ubiquity of zoos and aquariums—which reach over 700 million people worldwide annually—make them critical sites for science and environmental learning. Through educational offerings, these sites can generate excitement and curiosity about nature and motivate stewardship behavior, but only if their programs are high quality and meet the needs of their audiences. Evaluation is, therefore, critical: knowing what works, for whom, and under what conditions must be central to these organizations. Yet, many zoo and aquarium educators find evaluation to be daunting, and they are challenged to implement evaluations and/or use the findings iteratively in program development and improvement. This article examines how zoo education professionals engage with one another in a learning community related to evaluation. We use a communities of practice lens and social network analysis to understand the structure of this networked learning community, considering changes over time. Our findings suggest that individuals’ roles in a networked learning community are influenced by factors such as communicative convenience and one’s perceptions of others’ evaluation expertise, which also contribute to forming and sustaining professional relationships. This study illuminates how project-based professional networks can become communities of practice.     

Economic predictors of child maltreatment in an Australian population-based birth cohort

A correlation between socioeconomic disadvantage and child maltreatment has long been observed, but the drivers of this association are poorly understood. We sought to estimate the effects of economic factors on risk of child maltreatment after adjusting for other known influences using the Australian Temperament Project, a population-based birth cohort of 2443 individuals and their parents. We used logistic regression to estimate associations of childhood economic factors (parental education, occupation, and unemployment; type of housing; and retrospective perception of poverty) with retrospective reports of perceived child maltreatment (physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, and witnessing of domestic violence), controlling for demographic factors, parental mental health and substance use, and child health. We then used these estimates to approximate the proportions of child maltreatment—population attributable fractions—that are theoretically preventable by addressing childhood economic disadvantage. Economic factors were associated with all types of child maltreatment. For the most part, these associations diminished only partially when controlling for noneconomic confounders, supporting hypotheses of causal relationships. Jointly, economic factors were significant predictors of physical abuse, sexual abuse, and witnessing of domestic violence but not of emotional abuse or neglect. Retrospective perceptions of childhood poverty were, in particular, strongly associated with most forms of child maltreatment but not with sexual abuse after accounting for other economic factors. We estimated that 27% of all child maltreatment was jointly attributable to economic factors. These findings suggest that strategies that reduce economic disadvantage are likely to hold significant potential to reduce the prevalence of child maltreatment.     

Perceived Continuing Education Needs of Licensed Clinical Social Workers

Abstract

Although recent studies have explored various aspects of licensed practice in social work, there is little information about the current continuing education activities and needs of professionals involved in such practice. This paper describes a 1992 survey of a random sample of 421 licensed clinical social workers in Virginia to assess their perceived educational needs. Overall, practice theories and practitioner roles were most often identified as areas in which training is needed. Private practitioners wished for training in object relations theory more often—and training in supervision and cognitive theory less often—than their agency-based colleagues. The implications of these findings for continuing social work education and for the profession are discussed.     

Psychological aspects op physical handicap

Abstract

The promotion of home management of asthma has increased the popularity of education programs amongst health professionals. Our clinical experience has led us to believe presently available asthma education programs are inadequately used by parents of children with asthma. The authors summarise the results of a survey of program attendance and discuss relevant issues, including the opportunities for social workers to improve the current situation.     

Studying and Measuring Civility: A Framework, Trends and Scale

Four essential questions for the study of civility involve developing a definition of the term, determining its effects, establishing trends, and predicting the consequences of civility. A framework for studying it includes the actors, their gender, situations and settings, occupational role requirements, the cultural imperatives defining civility, and the processes through which it is learned. Objective measures of civility in the United States show its variability and change. Four items in the 1996 General Social Survey (GSS) are combined to form a scale of civility. Correlates of the scale show that civility does not differ by gender, color, or region. It is weakly associated with income but is significantly associated with education, occupation, and health. Age, education, and health provide a predictive model of civility. Anger, an emotional aspect of interpersonal exchange, reveals reactions characteristic of civil behavior: waiting for anger to pass before responding, trying to forget the incident, not thinking of revenge, not walking away from the situation, and not yelling or hitting. Hypotheses are proposed for further study that involves age, marital status, occupation, health, and emotional control.     

The physical and psychological stresses of women in firefighting

This literature review investigates females in the male-dominated field of firefighting. Various psychological and physical stressors are identified which are unique to women in this occupation. Psychological stressors include: self-doubt, skepticism of their abilities by others, performance pressure, sexual harassment, and social ostracism. Physical stressors include: ineffective physical conditioning, improper training in the use of power tools, and ill-fitting personal protective equipment. Proactive solutions are suggested as methods to remediate these problems, such as: sensitivity and social skills training, education, stress management and assertiveness training, task specific physical conditioning, proper training in the use of power tools, and the availability of personal protective equipment in sizes to fit women. Occupational therapy practitioners are identified as professionals qualified to carry out much of this training.     

The Role of Father’s Occupation on Intergenerational Educational and Occupational Mobility: The Case of Second‐Generation Chinese Americans in New York1

A considerable body of research has found a positive relationship between parents’ socioeconomic status and children’s educational achievement and attainment. The predictive role of parents’ socioeconomic status generally applies for most racial and ethnic groups, but that association does not always hold for groups that exhibit high levels of education, such as Asian Americans. This article considers the role of parents’ education and occupation on children’s educational and occupational attainment for Chinese Americans aged 18–32. The results corroborate the positive link between parents’ socioeconomic status and children’s educational and occupational attainments. Children of professionals command an educational and occupational advantage over children of entrepreneurs and children of manual workers. Yet, the children of entrepreneurs attend selective colleges and obtain professional occupations in proportions closely following those of the children of professionals. Although the educational attainments between the fathers who worked as entrepreneurs and those fathers engaged in manual work were comparable, it was the children of entrepreneurs who surpassed the children of manual workers with respect to educational and occupational achievement and attainment. This suggests that immigrant entrepreneurship contributes in the upward educational and occupational mobility of the children of entrepreneurs.     

Competency-based program evaluation: A contingency approach

What types and levels of professional competency should an evaluator have? Should requisite competencies differ depending on the nature of an evaluation? Can a practical competency assessment approach be developed for use in educating highly qualified evaluation professionals? This article addresses these concerns by presenting a contingency model of evaluation competencies. Four broad categories of competency — policy analysis, administrative, interpersonal /personal, and technical — are identified along with three different levels or criteria of acceptable performance. Then several features of the evaluation context, including the evaluation type, the phase and the evaluator role, are individually analyzed to determine the required competencies implied by each. Based on this, a contingency model is developed that postulates requisite competency types and levels depending on a combination of contextual features. The article concludes that the model can usefully serve as a heuristic or organizing mechanism for assessing evaluation contexts and orienting the education of professional evaluators.     

An Interpersonal Influence Model of Traditional Religious Commitment*

Typically, explanations of traditional religious commitment have relied on economic deprivation or sociodemographic variables. An alternative explanation was developed based on social control and participation in the activities of the congregation. It was predicted that the most important determinant of individual religious commitment would be denominational affiliation; the denomination establishes the expectations with regard to religious belief. It was also predicted that social participation variables, which determine the extent to which the individual is integrated into the congregation, would also be important. Testing the model with data broadly representative of the Protestant churchgoing population, it was found that denominational affiliation, church attendance and intra-congregational friendships were generally the three most important predictors of three traditional religious commitment measures. Other variables—education, occupation, gender, age and region of birth—made insignificant or small contributions to explained variance.     

Targeting the reach of educational support interventions in Kenya

The Free Primary Education program introduced in Kenya in 2003 increased primary school attendance rates. However, disparities in primary school education are evident throughout the nation. Using data from the 2003 and 2008–09 Kenya Demographic Health Surveys (KDHS), this study investigates the household characteristics—in addition to poverty—associated with poor school attendance. Using bivariate analysis and logistic regression we confirm that indeed household wealth is a factor in accessing free primary education. Younger children, those living in households headed by a non-biological parent are also less likely to attend school. Moreover households in arid and semi-arid regions of the country—areas characterized by historical socio-economic and political marginalization report significantly low primary school attendance rates. Findings from this study call attention to continued education disparities in spite of the free tuition program. The study further directs policy makers on how best to deploy scarce resources to target households most unable to provide adequate educational supports to children.     

A competency-based approach to preparing staff as recreation and youth development leaders

Youth development professionals and parks and recreation professionals often are charged with providing services to youth. However, the approach of each can be quite different as recreation is a primary focus for recreation professionals and part of many services offered by youth development specialists. Despite the differences, these two groups of professionals can learn a great deal from each other. This article examines youth development and staff training with examples from the field and suggests how youth development professionals can learn from recreation professionals and vice versa. It suggests that parks and recreation professionals can strengthen degree programs, accreditation, certification, and continuing education by incorporating specific youth development competencies established by the National Collaboration for Youth. For their part, youth development professionals can learn from parks and recreation professionals how to enhance recreation programming as part of their services by gaining an understanding of program design, program and activity leadership, and administrative practices. With much debate over whether more education or more experience is a better path for those working with youth, the authors suggest that a combination of both will adhere to the quality of staff. Staff gain further knowledge and skill from academic preparation at the undergraduate and graduate levels, field-based training through jobs and internships, and continuing education courses specializing in youth development competencies and recreation-based competencies set within a youth development environment.     

Interviewer Effect in a Survey of Drinking Practices*

This study investigates the relationship of interviewer characteristics to the responses of their interviewees in a survey in a relatively sensitive area—drinking practices. Generally, respondents seem to have reacted to easily ascertainable characteristics of the interviewers, such as sex, status (as measured by education, occupation, and clothing), and religion. The attitudes of the interviewer toward his interviewing were also related to respondents' reported drinking. It is concluded that interviewing is a social relationship of brief duration in which the respondent's performance reflects norms that tend to emerge based on the information each of the participants is able to learn about the other.     

Factors Contributing to the Size of Nonprofit Sector: Tests of Government Failure,Interdependence, and Social Capital Theory

Based on the county-level longitudinal data in the USA, this study finds that racial diversity is positively associated with the nonprofit sector size. We further find that the share of children below poverty level is negatively associated with the size of nonprofit sectors. Our findings support the government failure theory. Random effects models also show that federal funding and local funding are positively associated with the size of nonprofit sectors, which confirms interdependence theory. Lastly, we do not find statistically significant relationship between social capital—measured by the number of associations—and the nonprofit sector size.     

Migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States: a review of health hazards,status, and policy

Although the occupation and associated living conditions of migrant and seasonal agricultural workers in the US pose exceptional health hazards to the workers and their dependents, relatively few occupational health professionals have been involved with this group. This articles examines the basis for this neglect and proposes a definition of the population that should be considered in farmworker health policy. It then reviews existing evidence regarding hazards of 4 major occupational exposures--pesticides, the sun, injuries, and poor field sanitation--and policies that have been developed to address these hazards. The extremely negative health consequences of farmworker living conditions, which are indirect occupational hazards, are also summarized. Numerous policy, planning, and research recommendations are made. Adequate solutions for this impoverished and powerless group, however, will require significant sociopolitical advances, such as are developing with unionization and other forms of political organization.