The Effect of Family Structure on Female Labor Participation – Empirical Analysis based on the 2011 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study

Using 2011 China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study baseline data, this paper examines the effects of family structure on labor force participation. In consideration of the possible endogeneity provoked by family structure, we constructed regression models with instrument variables. Intergenerational co‐residence significantly decreases women's labor force participation by 14%, while it has no effect on men's labor supply. One potential reason for this result is residential circumstance. As it is custom to live with elderly parents in multi‐generation families in China, adult women often share the burden of all housework and are responsible for elderly care; thus, cohabiting with parents seems to have negative effects on female labor participation. On the contrary, Chinese culture dictates that men do not spend as much time as women on housework, thus, the probability of working in the labor market is not influenced by residential circumstance. If women were freed from housework responsibilities, the implication is that their participation in the labor force would increase.     

应对人口老龄化挑战的中国道路

老年人口的养老负担问题、代际关系问题以及价值实现问题是影响中国未来可持续发展的三个关键性问题。从经济学视角看,就是生之者寡和食之者众的关系问题;从社会学角度看,有一个资源和权力分配的代际冲突和老年价值实现问题;从人口学视角看,计划生育弱势老人的比例在上升,今后中国会出现大量的“计划生育老人”,提出“计生老人”概念的意义在于,国家各级政府和部门要凸显人口计生公共服务的公益性和福利性。中国作为一个先老后富的国家,人口老龄化带来的挑战是长期的、多样的。本文提出了成功老龄化的战略构想,包括健康老龄化、积极老龄化、和谐老龄化和幸福老龄化。在应对人口老龄化和老龄问题挑战的过程中,中国社会逐渐走出了一条传统与现代相结合的中国道路,概括说：就是以家庭养老、单位（集体）养老和自我养老为基础,以社区助老、福利助老、慈善助老为补充的中国道路。最后,本文作者对本专题几位学者的观点在“中国问题和中国选择”的框架内进行了综合性的介绍和评论。     

家庭功能变迁中的养老选择

进入人口老龄化的中国正处于高速转型期。社会结构、社会的价值观念等都发生着剧烈的变化。而这一切又正冲击着家庭的养老功能,形成养老方式多样化的格局。不过无论这些养老方式走向何方,居住方式皆是养老选择的一项重要影响因素。     

子女需求对城市家庭居住方式的影响

本文使用中国家庭动态跟踪调查2010年初访数据,着重分析了子女需求对城市家庭居住方式的影响。研究发现,子女需求是导致年轻夫妇与父母同住的重要原因,这种需求一方面表现在经济上,尤其是在住房上对父母的依赖;另一方面表现在需要父母分担家务和帮助照料小孩。所以,除了父母的养老需求,子女需求对城市家庭居住选择的影响也同样不容忽视。在现代化和人口流动的背景下,虽然城市家庭有核心化的趋势,但由于当代中国城市家庭依然发挥着不可替代的重要功能,大家庭在未来依然有继续存在的必要性。     

年龄间的社会分化和农村家庭养老制度的资源困境

本文关注的是中国农村社会和农村家庭中不同年龄和代际间的社会平等问题。文章描述了农村老年人的物质生活和社会生活状况,指出农村老年人群体性的相对贫困现状,以及老年人生活质量和社会经济地位的弱化与农村整体生活水平逐步提高之间存在结构性矛盾,认为农村以年龄和代际为界的社会分化业已形成。文章还通过对家庭养老制度面临的资源困境的分析,进一步解释了经济、社会和文化变迁是如何通过改变农村的家庭制度和家庭中的代际关系对老年人的生活及其权力和权利状况产生影响的。     

Aging in the Third World

The relationships between the generations in Third World countries are changing as migration and industrialization erode traditional family responsibilities for supporting the elderly. It is no longer possible to assume that, as a matter of course, old people will be looked after by their families. Social change leads to an eroding of the support systems. The author finds growing evidence of this breakdown in Asia, particularly in Singapore, Hong Kong, and other highly industrialized centers. Singapore, for example, has reinstituted the compulsory study of filial piety in an attempt to push the younger generation into assuming its traditional responsibility toward the old. There has also been a significant decline in the status, prestige, and support given old people in Indonesia, although politicans insist that the family will always take care of its elderly. 2 reasons for this breakdown are 1) the impact of the mass media and 2) the increasing involvement of the younger generation in non-agricultural jobs which often involve a move to the city and away from dependence on a patriarch. Many Third World countries are in a twilight stage, between the traditionally strong structure of family support and government systems of social security.     

人口老龄化趋势下我国农村独生子女家庭养老困境及破解

农村独生子女家庭是一个特殊的社会群体,他们为中国的计划生育做出了重大贡献。但是,这一群体目前日益步入老龄化,他们的养老面临一系列困境,如:独生子女家庭养老的经济负担普遍较重,附加于计划生育政策上的政策性保障有限,养老风险较大,家庭养老功能弱化,社会养老功能不健全等等。为此,建议设立农村独生子女家庭养老专项基金,以减轻独生子女养老的经济负担;独生子女父母要加强自我养老意识,为自我养老创造条件;加大社会养老机构建设力度,应对未来不断增多的独生子女家庭养老挑战;发展壮大集体经济,建立健全社区养老服务体系,使其逐渐成为家庭养老的可替代性选择等。     

充分就业:和谐社会的重要标志

我国人口基数大,新增劳动力、国企下岗分流人员增加和农村劳动力转移的现象并存,呈现出劳动力供求总量矛盾与结构性矛盾交织、就业压力长期存在的局面。同时,存在多种影响充分就业的客观因素,使得就业的数量与就业质量受到严峻的挑战。因此,实行"经济发展与充分就业并重、效率与公平均衡"的方针,大力发展生产力,推进技术创新,鼓励非公经济、第三产业和中小企业的发展,保护劳动者的合法权益,为构建和谐社会奠定坚实基础。     

老年人力资源利用与开发的探讨

低龄健康老年人可以作为老年人力资源开发的重点对象。目前我国老年人口在业状况表现为:劳动参与率低、就业途径单一、就业行业与职业高度集中在农业、就业身份以自营为主、工作时间较长。个案资料显示老年人再就业"社会人"需求为主;收入以贴补家用,提高生活品质为主;工作内容以发挥专业技术特长为主;年龄歧视不明显;家人的理解和支持力度大。他们再就业主要受制于个人的生理与个人素质因素及宏观政策因素。应采取相关系列措施善用老年人力资源。     

SPECIAL ISSUE： MIGRANT WORKERS IN THE COURSE OF URBANIZATION Migrant workers in China： a general survey

本文通过对相关实证研究文献的疏理,从农民工总量规模、结构分布、对输出地贡献和对输入地影响四个方面对中国农民工的总体性状况进行了描述与分析。在总量规模的分析中,我们需要注意各调查的统计口径,值得注意的是,根据最新发布的农普调查数据,农村外出从业劳动力已达1．3亿,此处数据不含随外出从业劳动力外出的非劳动力人口。外出务工经商者以初中文化的青壮年为主,行业分布以制造业、建筑业和服务业为主,长距离迁移占很高比例。农民工跨区域转移这种就业结构变动对我国经济增长贡献巨大,已有研究估计对GDP增量贡献在20％左右。从输出地来看,总的影响是积极的,特别是收入状况的改善,但也留下了数量庞大的留守族。     

北京市生态涵养区农村劳动力就业动机研究

本文通过对北京市延庆县的五个村庄进行调查,发现农村劳动力就业动机可分为四种类型:收入导向型、工作导向型、家庭导向型和发展导向型。选择人力资本、家庭人口结构、家庭耕地占有、家庭年总收入、居住地区位五类影响农村劳动力就业动机的因素,着重分析它们对农村劳动力就业动机影响的差异。     

Do universal non‐contributory old‐age pensions make sense for rural areas in low‐income countries?

The need for old‐age security coverage in rural areas of many developing countries is rapidly increasing for several reasons, including population ageing and the weakening of family support networks. These trends have generated intense interest in policies that might help respond to the growing problem of rural old‐age destitution. The focus of our analysis is on one of the most promising alternatives under consideration: universal non‐contributory old‐age pensions. This model has some limitations and it is not appropriate for all developing countries, but it would be of potential benefit to far more than the six that have already implemented variants of this approach.     

Pensioners among Chinese elderly

The pension system is one type of social welfare system which provides support for elderly citizens after retirement. The system in the People's Republic of China was established in the 1950s, mainly for state employees and employees of privately owned enterprises, while peasants relied on their land to support them in their old age. Up to the 1970s, there was little change in this system. However, the system has since undergone dramatic reform. The implication of the new system for the future elderly in China will be significant. This paper discusses the current impact of the pension system on the elderly in China. According to our analysis, fewer than 25% of Chinese elderly receive a pension. The social and demographic characteristics (e.g. age, gender, residence, educational attainment, occupation) of pension recipients are partially a legacy of past policies. As new policies are implemented and the pension system improves, more elderly will be covered by the pension system. Nonetheless, we need to find ways to support those who do not receive a pension.     

日本劳动力不足问题及解决对策

从2005年开始,日本进人人口减少型社会。如何解决劳动力不足是日本面对的重要课题。劳动力不足问题将会制约整个日本经济未来的发展。为了解决劳动力不足问题,需要向老年人和女性以及外国劳动者提供更多的就业机会。虽然,这么做在一定程度上能够缓解劳动力不足问题,但解决不了根本的问题。更重要的是改变雇佣惯例、提高雇佣质量、改革人才培养结构。     

何时方休?——中国老年人就业参与的队列分析

推迟退休年龄是应对人口老龄化的重要措施.利用第六次人口普查汇总数据,以40岁为年龄起点分析从中年到老年就业参与状况,并结合"五普"数据运用队列分析方法探讨老年人口就业状况的变化轨迹.结果显示,在法定退休年龄处,人口在业比例有一个明显的下降梯度,但法定退休年龄对老年群体的就业行为影响程度存在明显的城乡差异.城镇人口在业比例在50-60岁间明显下降,而农村人口在业比例下降则发生在60岁以后.此外,在业老年人口中超过80%为农村老年劳动力.虽然当前在农村地区并未实行退休制度,但农村养老金的发放以退休年龄为起点,因此,在调整退休年龄时需要特别关注农村老人,避免养老金的延迟发放使其陷入贫困和老无所依.     

构建老人福利机构危险管理机制——日本经验之启示

"养儿防老"是中国传统的养老模式,长期以来老人的养老主要依靠子女来解决,但是随着生活方式的改变、家庭规模的日趋小型化,老人的长期照顾问题受到了社会的广泛关注。近年来国家制定了相关的政策、制度以及服务来满足老人及其家人的需求,然而老人福利机构及所提供的照顾服务,其服务质量离人性化照顾服务仍有一段距离。就现阶段而言,老人福利机构所提供照顾服务的质与量,均有提升与改善的空间。日本是亚洲第一个施行公共性长期照顾保险的国家,其施行之初也面临着一些与我国同样的问题,为提升长期照顾机构的服务质量,日本厚生劳动省在介护保险制度施行后的2002年,就开始倡导老人福利机构应建立危险管理机制的理念,并于2006年修订老人长期照顾福利机构管理规则,规定老人福利机构应建立危险管理机制,以提升照顾服务质量。有鉴于此,本文将对日本老人长期照顾福利机构建立危险管理机制的过程、基本架构,以及相关课题做系统说明,为我国老人福利机构经营管理提供参考,也可为我国未来在探讨老人长期照顾问题之际,提供必要的配套依据。     

The 'Consumer Principle' in the Care of Elderly People: Free Choice and Actual Choice in the German Welfare State

In the mid-1990s, together with new long-term care legislation, the German welfare state introduced care markets and consumer choice between family care and different types of formal care. However, instead of using the new option to choose publicly funded care by long-term care agencies, the majority of elderly people in need of care continued to decide in favour of care exclusively provided by family members. The article examines how the persistence of family care in spite of the new options of consumer choice can be explained, using data from representative surveys on the care of elderly people in Germany and the results of guided interviews by the authors with family members involved in care. The findings indicate that there are two main reasons. The first is that elderly people and their families orient their behaviour towards traditional care values in which the first priority is given to mutual support between spouses and generations. The second reason is that elderly people on the one hand and care agencies on the other have substantially different definitions of a good quality of care.     

我国人口老龄化背景下养老产业发展问题研究

在新经济常态背景下,随着人口老龄化程度不断加深,我国财政支出将面临越来越大的挑战,发展养老产业将成为我国应对人口老龄化问题的必然选择。养老产业的发展有利于减轻政府负担,提高老年人生活质量,促进产业调整,缓解就业压力。我国的养老市场规模庞大,并且供不应求,政府高度关注养老产业,为我国大力发展养老产业提供了可行性。但是,尽管目前"保险系""央企系""房企系"等社会资本已经注入,养老产业仍然存在着政府的引导和支持力度不足,缺乏专业人才,相关产业整合难度大,国民养老观念落后等问题。因此,我国应尽快完善相关政策以加强引导和扶持的力度,积极调动社会资源使投资主体多元化,加强养老产业人才队伍建设,加快转变养老观念。     

家庭与市场：中国农村的非农就业模式探究

本文基于中国综合社会调查(CGSS)2005数据探讨了中国农村家庭的非农就业模式。随着农户家庭在集体农业的解体后成为重要的生产主体,部分农民从家庭农业中疏离而成为工薪阶层或者进入增长中的私营经济部门。本文的第一个模型采用logistic回归在个人层面估测已婚男性和女性在农业或者非农经济部门中就业的机会,第二个模型则探究在夫妇层面选择四种就业模式的可能性：夫妇双方,夫妇中的一方（丈夫或妻子）,或者没有任何一方从事非农职业。两个模型支持了教育水平对非农就业机会的正面作用。妇女的就业方式对于祖父母的支持效应和子女的付出效应更为敏感,但祖父母所起的作用受到本身年龄的制约。同时,男性的就业优势对家庭在职业上的性别分工并没有显著的推动作用。模型结果也表明,家庭就业模式的形成是和市场层面的因素,如村庄的地理位置,经济发展特征和劳动力状况紧密联系在一起的。另外,东部和中部地区在提供非农就业机会方面,相对于西部地区具备了一定的优势条件。     

Diversity among Northwest Hispanics

This article analyzes differences in the Northwest Spanish origin population by age, household—family structure, labor force participation, education, and poverty status. Comparisons are made with the white population to see if there are greater differences by county of residence. Contrary to findings in other studies, Hispanic females and more likely to be in the labor force when compared to white females. However, on variables indicating disadvantaged status, Northwest Hispanics follow patterns set in other parts of the country. In addition, there are generally greater differences by county of residence for the Hispanic population than for the white population. The implication of these findings for the status of Northwest Hispanics is discussed.