"Taking full responsibility" should be emphasized in the control of population growth]

Since the establishment of a responsible production system in the countryside, the living standard of the general public has risen constantly, but a new problem in family planning has also occurred. A great many people believe that more male children will eventually provide more labor and thus more income. Consequently, there has been a gradual rise in the birth rate. A crucial problem which needs an immediate solution is how to match the population growth and agricultural production. As a responsible production system is established, an appropriate family planning system should also be established. Married couples of childbearing age should sign contracts concerning family planning and should follow regulations outlined in the contract. Contract violators should be punished with fines, and thoas who follow the contract should be offered economic rewards. Cadres and responsible officials should take full responsibility for reaching the goals set for their respective county, district, commune or brigade, and their people should be rewarded or punished according to their performance. Special care should be given to the old, handicapped, orphans and widows and those who suffer from illness. Households with only one child should be awarded and encouraged with additional benefits. Taking full responsibility is a concept which should be used extensively in agricultural development, production management, and family planning.     

The population of Shanghai city: the present situation, some problems, and our recommendations]

A summary is presented of the history of Shanghai's population growth and the accompanying problems relative to high density, employment, housing, and transportation. Some suggestions for controlling Shanghai's population growth are made, including the need to accomodate population growth in national economic planning, to adopt effective measures to lower the birth rate in the suburbs, and to establish an organization with city-wide authority to develop population policy and to handle all population-related problems.     

We must complete the population control system to control the population peak and achieve our population goal]

Since 1986, China has experienced another baby boom which is expected to last till 1997. If no effective measure is implemented to check population growth, the population target of around 1.2 billion will not be achieved. The author proposed four population regulation mechanisms that need to be strengthened. First, ideological education needs to be used to change people's perceptions about family size, so that couples would willingly accept small families. Second, financial incentives and penalties need to be used to direct people to regulate their fertility. The incentive and penalty technique directly affect the interests of the family and is likely to produce rapid results. Third, legislation can be used to regulate reproductive behavior, the laws and legislation which restrict social behavior should be utilized for population control purposes. Once legislation on fertility regulation is passed, those who violate the law can be penalized. Furthermore, legislation gives family planning (FP) workers legitimacy in implementing the program and can help avoid disputes in the process of FP program implementation. Fourth, provision of contraception and abortion services is an important mechanism to ensure the realization of the objectives of population growth control. Meanwhile, the effectiveness of contraceptive methods and the acceptance of abortion depends on the research and development of contraceptive technology and on abortion techniques. These fertility regulatory mechanisms have not be adequately established, and their functions have not been fully utilized. The current FP program is hampered by simplistic ideological education, abusive use of incentives and penalties, lack of legislation, and unmet needs in contraceptive development. To achieve the population targets, these mechanisms need to be strengthened.     

对我国人口城市化道路的思考

加快我国人口城市化的发展,对推动我国社会经济的进一步发展具有十分重要的作用。中国走什么样的人口城市化发展道路一直是一个很重要又争论不休的问题。本文通过对我国城市发展方针的反思,提出了我国应走以规模扩大式为主的人口城市化道路。     

Change of population policy and the population situation in China]

A correct population policy is very crucial to the solution of the population problem, economic development, and social progress. The real situation in China now is a large population, a high rate of population growth, and low level of productivity. Facing this situation, China's population policy should include control of population growth in quantity, a promotion of population quality, and a match between population growth and social and economic development for the final realization of the Four Modernizations. In recent years, under the leadership of the National Committee on Family Planning, together with cooperation from various offices at the local level, a great change has taken place in China's population situation. The fertility rate has declined gradually, and late marriage, delayed births, and a reduced number of births have also become popular. A change in the age structure of the population has also slowed the pace of population growth. A reduction in the ratio of women of childbearing age is also helpful in the control of population growth, and the natural growth rate for the population has declined. This change shows that family planning is working in China and great results have been achieved. To come closer to the national goal of population control, practical work should be focused on rural areas. The rural population constitutes about 80% of total population and the fertility rate in rural areas is much higher than that of the cities. If population control can be achieved in the rural areas, the overall goal of population control for the country can then be achieved more easily.     

对我国人口城市化进程的评价与推进对策

我国人口城市化水平相对落后 ,这一落后状况对我国社会经济发展将产生多方面的不利影响 ,必须加快我国人口城市化的进程。     

Fertility survey in the rural areas of Hubei Province]

In July, 1981, the staff of the Population Research Section of the Economics Department of Wuhan University and family planning personnel at the local level conducted a survey on fertility in the rural areas of Hubei Province. The survey was conducted in the forms of public opinion polls and individual conversations with the local people. The results of this survey can be summarized as follows: (1) Marriage Question -- the average age for first marriage is 22.54. The marriage rate is 5.3/1,000 for age 18, 35.5/1,000 for age 19, 54.2/1,000 for age 20, 171.9/1,000 for age 21, 393.5/1,000 for age 22, 717.8/1,000 for age 23, 886.3/1,000 for age 24, and 965.3/1,000 for age 25. (2) Birth Question -- average time between first marriage and first child is two years. Women between the ages of 25 and 29 average 2 children; women between the ages 20 and 24 average 1.3 children. Figures show that an unlimited population growth is already under restraint, and the fertility rate shows some obvious decline. (3) Ideological Question -- traditional beliefs favoring more children and favoring boys to girls are still strong in the minds of the people. In general, young males and females still contemplate an early marriage and wish to have two children. In order to correct the people's ideology and match it with national population policy, more work is needed in family planning.     

An analysis of the 1987 population situation in China]

Presented here is an analysis of some of the manually collected data from a 1% random sample of China's population taken on 7/1/87. 1)Population growth: The population grew 6.36% from 1982-87 to give a total population of 1,072,330,000. Even though the average annual growth rate of 1.24% during these years is slower than the growth rate of the 1950s and 1960s, this does not mean that China can be complacent about it. Due to China's large population base, every year its population increases by about 13,000,000, with serious implications for consumerism, education and labor. The natural rate of growth dropped during 1982-84, but by 1987, it had increased again to 1981 levels. If China is to limit its population to 1.25 billion by 2000, the average annual growth rate must remain below 1.23%, which is lower than the figures of recent years. 2) Sex differences: the population was 51.1% male and 48.9% female. 3) Age structure: 28.68% of the population were 14 years and younger; 65.86% were between 15-64 years; 5.46% were 65 years and older. The median age was 24.2 years. The percentage of the 0-14 year bracket dropped about 7.6% from 1953-87, while the 15-64 year olds increased 6.6% and the 65 years and older group increased 1%. On the surface, a 1% increase of the aged would not present a problem to China taken as a whole. However, when densely populated areas such as Shanghai are looked at, the situation demands immediate attention. 4) Ethnic groups: 92% of the population were Han. Minorities increased 5% annually between 1982-87 to comprise 8% of the population. This rapid growth among minorities is due in part to official permission for families to bear more than one child, and to better sanitary and medical attention. 6) Population distribution: 37.1% of the population lived in urban areas, as compared with 10% in 1949. By 1990 the urban population could reach 40%, creating serious social, economic and political pressure on cities.     

Marital migration of the rural population in Beijing suburbs]

The recent increase in marital migration in China among the rural population of the Beijing suburbs is examined, with a focus on the impact of uneven economic developments in villages and of different rates of population growth and distribution, fertility, and sex ratios. Findings are based on a survey of 1981 marriage patterns in a number of Beijing suburban communes. It is found that slightly over 50 percent of the women married within their communes, less than 20 percent married men from other suburban communes, and the remainder married outside the communes. The author observes that more women than men have migrated into the Beijing area and that marriage has been a major determinant of this movement.     

山东丘陵地区农村剩余劳动力转移态势与路径探讨

根据对山东省丘陵地区临沭县的农户外出打工情况的抽样调查,研究发现:目前山东丘陵地区农村剩余劳动力外出打工情况是相当普遍的,打工对家庭的收入具有决定性的影响,打工的主要原因是城乡收入差距,其次才是劳动力剩余和年轻人渴望从事非农业生产等原因。存在缺乏双亲监督,留守儿童读书不理想的家庭约有20%。当地政府对农民外出打工起到的引导作用比较有限,调查中接受过政府培训或者由政府组织外出打工的农民仅约占20%。当地招商引资项目对就业的拉动效果不太明显,文章呼吁一定要注意发挥我国劳动力便宜的相对比较优势,走劳动密集型道路,以求拉动就业。关于劳动力转移的态势,研究发现,农村25岁以下,初中以上文化程度的劳动力供给已经出现逐年减少的趋势。估计在不久的未来,流向城市的农村剩余劳动力虽然总量上不会减少,但是真正能够融入城市工业化进程的农村年轻知识型劳动力(知识型在这里指初中以上文化程度)的供给会出现短缺。     

A statistical analysis of the life expectancy of the residents of our country, 1973-75]

Statistical analysis of life expectancy is important in assessing population health and its characteristics and in studying human diseases and natural population changes. Life tables are constructed and statistical analysis is performed retrospectively on data accumulated over a 3-year (1973-1975) period. The data were supplied by the Office of Cancer Prevention and Treatment of the Ministry of Health, which originated from 24 provinces, representing an accumulated population of 2.04 billion, with a total mortality of 15.29 million. Results show that life expectancy in China has greatly improved since Liberation. Thus, in 1935, the average life expectancy for Nanjing residents was under 35 years. In 1951, the average life expectancy for male and female residents of Shanghai were 42.74 and 46.76 years respectively. But for the 1973-1975 period, the average Chinese life expectancy was 63.62 years for males and 66.31 years for females, with higher life expectancy for coastal provinces than for inland provinces. Cardiovascular diseases (excluding arteriosclerotic heart diseases), malignant tumors, and cerebrovascular diseases were the major causes of death in regions with higher life expectancy, while respiratory diseases, infectious diseases, and diseases of the newborn were the major causes of death in regions with lower life expectancy.     

我国农村计划生育利益导向机制的构建——基于子女成本和效用的分析

本文从计划生育政策下我国农村子女效用角度出发,分析了农村计划生育利益导向机制的补偿、激励、导向、保障功能等功能,提出建立利益导向机制的3个角度,即针对计生家庭的父母、子女和整个家庭3部分实施的优惠性的利益机制,指出利益导向机制的优惠措施要具有易获得性、体现地区差异性,并强调利益导向机制要同生育文化一同建设、相互促进。     

Comparative analysis of the index of our population life quality]

A comprehensive method of calculating and measuring a country's or an area's health and literacy levels is examined. The method, known as population quality life inference (PQLI), was used to determine which of China's provinces has the highest and the lowest degree of population quality. The PQLI indicates infant mortality, average life expectancy of 1 year olds, and literacy rates of those 15 years and older. Because developing countries traditionally have high rates of infant mortality and illiteracy and low life expectancy rates during their industrialization, measuring the degree of population quality of life improvement of such countries during this period was found to be significant. These factors (infant mortality, illiteracy, and life expectancy) will improve substantially as industrialization continues. In order to compare various areas, these 3 factors must be changed into "inferences" 0-100, "0" representing the lowest population quality and "100" the highest. These 3 inferences must then be averaged in order to calculate the PQLI. For example: life expectancy value 77 (highest in the world) minus 38 (lowest)/100 = .39. In order to measure the value of India's life expectancy: value of 1-year-old's life expectancy = 56 (1-year-old's life expectancy in India) minus 38/.39 = 46. The value of adult illiteracy does not need to be changed. Thus, the actual comparison will be based on the values of the 3 inferences. Using this method of calculation, it is concluded that the PQLI analysis indicated that Peking (93.04) is the highest in China and Yumnan Province (60.72) is the lowest.     

Family planning: knowledge, attitude and practice of childbearing women in rural areas]

Knowledge, attitude, and practice (KAP) of family planning techniques, is seen as potentially a very effective means for promoting the fundamental principles, objectives, and practices of family planning. In September 1983, a 2-part survey was conducted in the northeast rural area of Hubei province, China, to learn how much local women knew about birth control techniques, devices, available information, and services, as well as personal attitudes and apprehensions toward family planning. The data, based on the ages and educational backgrounds of the surveyed women, are analyzed. The 2nd part of the survey measured the difference in attitudes between women and men regarding the desired number and sex of offspring. While 99% of the surveyed women supported family planning, many expressed a strong desire to learn more about family planning, particularly as related to government policies.     

A preliminary analysis of the present situation of China's population]

The national census conducted in 1982 provides the most up-to-date statistics on China's population. The following are some characteristics of China's population at the present time, based upon preliminary analysis: (1) The total population figure has passed the one billion mark, but the growth rate has been declining since the 1970s; (2) The population density is higher than other countries of the world, but the distribution is uneven. The percentage of the city population is low, and changes in urban and rural distribution are slow; (3) The population growth of ethnic minorities is higher than average, and the ratio of the minority population is increasing; (4) There are slightly more men than women-an impact of traditional society; (5) The age structure of the population is still young, but sharp change is in the process of developing; (6) Fertility has declined on a large scale, but is still far from reaching the goal of population control; (7) The death rate has remained at a low level for a long period of time, and average lifespan is gradually becoming prolonged; (8) The marital status has remained stable, and people normally marry between the ages of 20 and 30; (9) The cultural and educational level of the general public has been promoted, but still not enough for modernized construction; (10) The employment rate is high, and most of the working population is employed with the departments of material production. The percentage of employment of a service nature is small. A high percentage of the working population is related to agriculture, fishing, and animal husbandry. The precentage of workers in manual labor is much higher than that for mental labor.     

The population situation and its relation to the economy in Turkey]

In southwest Asia, Turkey is a leading nation in collecting complete data on its population through the use of a modern census. Based on available information, the development of Turkey's population can be summarized as follows: 1) in the last 20 years, Turkey's population increase rate has been 2% annually, very high by world standards; 2) the average age is young, and the population's burden coefficient is above 80%; and 3) the geographical distribution of the population is uneven. The population density in central, eastern, and southeastern parts of the country is low, while the coastal provinces near the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea, and Aegean Sea have a high population density. In the last 50 years, the political situation in Turkey has remained stable. The national economy has developed rapidly, and the infant mortality rate has declined as a result of advancements in medicine and health care. Since Turkey is an Islamic country, birth control and abortion are not popular. The traditional early marriage for women and high illiteracy rate among women have contributed to a rapid population growth. In the past 20 years, however, the national economy has been overburdened by a rapid population growth. Problems of unemployment, a housing shortage in cities, inadequate public health facilities, a shortage of schools, a decline in farm land and inadequate food supplies have become increasingly obvious. Economically speaking, Turkey is much better than most developing nations. With its current foundation and rich natural resources, the country needs only to reduce the natural population increase rate slightly in order to achieve a balanced economic development.     

A brief analysis of population pressure on agricultural production under the new situation]

China's agricultural industry is currently undergoing a gradual transition from its previously restrictive self-sufficient natural economy to a more commercialized system of production. This transition has already effected an increase in China's agricultural productivity. Moreover, efforts toward planned population growth have made significant headway in China's rural areas. With all these changes, the large, unskilled Chinese farm family is currently facing mounting economic troubles as the new system of commercialized farming now rewards the technically skilled and economically efficient farmer. The problems facing many large farm families in China's north central province of Shaanxi are discussed, as well as the deficiencies of the system of farmland apportionment which awards farmland according to family size, instead of family capital resources and productivity.     

General situation and characteristics of the population of the Yemen Arab Republic]

The Yemen Arab Republic conducted a national census on February 1, 1975 and collected accurate and useful information for population research. Such information can be used to understand various factors in this country's development process and to set up a longterm plan for the country's economic development. According to this census, the total population of the country was 4,705,337. About 54.4% of its population was under the age of 16, and the average age for the population was 16. This young age population structure shows that the number of people who need employment is high, and the pressure on social and economic development is strong. Because of a poor living standard and backward health care, the birthrate and death rate have remained very high, and economic growth has been very slow. Because of the poor geographical condition, the distribution of population in the country is rather scattered. Every residential area has an average population of less than 83 persons, and this is a great obstacle in the country's socioeconomic development. The cultural level and education remain very backward, and the illiteracy rate is high. The illiteracy rate among women is 97.6%. Most women do not participate in social labor. In the labor market, the percentage of underage workers is extremely high. Many young children have to work to support themselves because of the backward economy and poor living conditions. All these are obstacles to this country's economic development.     

Studying Marxist theory on population and initiating a new situation in demographic research]

Within Marxist ideology are important population theories that led to the establishment of demography and the work of population control in China. Marxist population theory should be studied in order to build a scientific system of concepts in population theory. Both Marx and Engels spoke of the relationship between human reproduction and material production, and of how the modes of social development determine population development. Marx also established the view that a normal population and surplus population both were mutually adaptable with a certain production basis. In any historical period, the total population is not determined subjectively by man's wishes, but is a product of historical development. The Maoist population theory is derived from Marxist theory. Borrowing from historical materialism, Mao said that of all the objects in the world, man is the most precious. Nevertheless, he continued, while China's large population is good, it brings many difficulties; thus, population must be controlled. The study of demography should follow Marxist and Maoist population theories, even though the study of Marixst population theory is relatively recent and much remains to be learned.     

Initially analyzing the characteristics and evaluated indexes in rural areas and making relative policies]

20% of rural family planning (FP) programs in China have an unsatisfactory performance. A study was conducted in four townships with poor FP program performance in Pengxi County, Sichuan Province. Some common characteristics of these townships are as follows. Lack of concern about the FP program on the part of the local leadership. 2) Resistance of local people to FP communication and education; 96% of 426 families interviewed wanted to have 2 children, and only 3.7% wanted 1 child. 3) Lack of enforcement of the incentives and disincentives stipulated in the FP policy. 4) Lack of service delivery back-up in FP programs with a shortage of trained professional staff to provide clinical services and a shortage of the necessary medical facilities or equipment to meet the needs of FP service delivery. 5) The large number of early marriages, early child-births, extra-marital child-births without quota. At the present time, there is not specific quantitative standard to evaluate the FP program performance in a particular district. 3 indicators are appropriate for comparison of program performance. 1) Has the annual birth control target for the district been met? 2) The percentage of births with in the FP quota. Under 60% of births within the quota should be considered poor performance. 3) Over 20% of unplanned pregnancies reflect poor performance in the areas of birth control education, and contraceptive service delivery. The following are suggestions for solving the problems of poor program performance. 1) Community leaders should be evaluated on a per capita production output value rather than on total value. Their achievements should also be linked with their salary increases, promotions and bonuses. 2) One-child families should have a priority in receiving financial aids for development. 3) Governmental and non-government organizations should work together to promote the implementation of FP policies. 4) Service delivery systems should be strengthened by promoting population and FP education to families and in schools. Funding should be made available to increase the capability of birth control service delivery in terms of staff training, provision of equipment and housing and improvement in the quality of services. 5. Full use should be made of the potential of village leaders to take personal responsibility for every aspect of the FP.