Innovation with field experiments: Studying organizational behaviors in actual organizations

Organizational scholarship centers on understanding organizational context, usually captured through field studies, as well as determining causality, typically with laboratory experiments. We argue that field experiments can bridge these approaches, bringing causality to field research and developing organizational theory in novel ways. We present a taxonomy that proposes when to use an audit field experiment (AFE), procedural field experiment (PFE) or innovation field experiment (IFE) in organizational research and argue that field experiments are more feasible than ever before. With advances in technology, behavioral data has become more available and randomized changes are easier to implement, allowing field experiments to more easily create value—and impact—for scholars and organizations alike.     

Distributed sensemaking in network risk analysis

This article responds to the call advancing risk science as an independent research field, by introducing a conceptual model for risk analysis based on distributed sensemaking. Significant advances in recent decades have expanded the use of risk analysis to almost every organization globally. Continued improvements have been made to our understanding of risk, placing a wide range of contexts under organizational control. This article argues that four dimensions are central in how organizations make sense of uncertainty in their context and hence do risk analysis: the activities the organization engages in, their sensory systems, the role and competence of individuals, and the ability to coordinate information through organizational structures. The structure enables insight into the decision-making process and the dimensions contributing to how organizations perceive risks and uncertainty in a given context. Three examples from the Arctic context illustrate the network risk analysis model's practical application and how it will expose weaknesses in these organizations’ risk analysis and decision-making processes. Finally, the article discusses sensemaking in network risk analysis and how such an approach supports organizations’ ability to perceive, collect, process, and decide on changes in context.     

Organizational Responses to Contending Institutional Logics: The Moderating Effect of Group Dynamics

This paper advances knowledge on how the forms of institutional logics that emerge and become venerated among members of a singular organization in a heterogeneous field are influenced by struggles between contending interest groups. It examines the moderating effect of group dynamics that occur when an organization attempts to balance novel institutional complexity within organizational bounds through its hiring and promotion systems. The authors argue that, while the specific institutional oppositions of heterogeneous fields compel organizational changes, the institutional forms that emerge and become legitimate among members of an organization in such fields are the effects of indeterminate social processes of regularization and breaking of coexisting logics. The paper provides insights into how the negotiations among groups of organizational actors over the process and outcome of institutional change are influenced by asymmetric power relationships yet significantly mediated by their social strategies. The findings reported are from an ethnography of the enactment of institutional changes at a South Korean credit card company following the economic crisis in 1997 and the International Monetary Fund bailout programme.     

Employee green behaviour: A review and recommendations for future research

Despite the increasing awareness of impacts of organizational activities on the natural environment and the urgent need for sustainable management of ecosystems, emerging research on employee green behaviour in the field of management and organizational science is largely fragmented, requiring an integrative review. Seeking to better understand research opportunities and advance theoretical and empirical development, this paper evaluates available research on the topic by first reviewing conceptualizations and corresponding theoretical approaches. It then develops an overarching framework to evaluate the findings of empirical studies at different levels of analysis for different approaches. It concludes with recommendations for future research on employee green behaviour and provides important implications for environmental sustainability in organizations.     

企业跨部门心理安全、知识分享与组织绩效间关系的实证研究

知识分享是组织学习研究领域中的一个热点话题,本研究旨在探讨跨部门心理安全对组织内部知识分享以及组织绩效的影响机制。本文实证研究发现,组织跨部门心理安全与组织知识分享、组织绩效之间均存在"倒U"关系,而知识分享会对组织绩效的提升产生正向影响,知识分享在跨部门心理安全对组织绩效的作用中扮演中介角色。研究发现有助于加深我们对跨部门心理安全与组织知识分享、组织绩效间作用关系的深入了解,为企业管理实践提供有益的借鉴和启示。     

组织学习模式转变与后发企业技术能力提升研究——以永光集团为例

通过对永光集团的案例研究,回答了在不断变化的技术和市场环境下,后发企业如何根据不同发展阶段的战略目标和技术基础选择组织学习的主导模式,以促进技术能力提升这一问题。分析表明,组织学习是一个不断深化的动态过程。组织学习模式的选择与技术基础有着很强的内在联系,后发企业技术能力发展水平、技术基础和发展战略目标影响组织学习主导模式的选择,而组织学习的主导模式又从知识积累和知识应用2个方面影响后发企业技术能力的形成。     

Imprinting: Toward a Multilevel Theory

The concept of imprinting has attracted considerable interest in numerous fields—including organizational ecology, institutional theory, network analysis, and career research—and has been applied at several levels of analysis, from the industry to the individual. This article offers a critical review of this rich yet disparate literature and guides research toward a multilevel theory of imprinting. We start with a definition that captures the general features of imprinting across levels of analysis but is precise enough to remain distinct from seemingly similar concepts, such as path dependence and cohort effects. We then provide a framework to order and unite the splintered field of imprinting research at different levels of analysis. In doing so, we identify economic, technological, institutional, and individual influences that lead to imprints at the level of (a) organizational collectives, (b) single organizations, (c) organizational building blocks, and (d) individuals. Building on this framework, we develop a general model that points to major avenues for future research and charts new directions toward a multilevel theory of imprinting. This theory provides a distinct lens for organizational research that takes history seriously.     

Organizational Identity and Legitimacy under Major Environmental Changes: Tales of Two UK Building Societies

We studied how organizational identity (OI) and organizational legitimacy (OL) interplayed within two British building societies during drastic environmental changes over two decades. Four salient phases of environmental changes were identified in the British building society sector over the last two decades (introduction of new regulatory framework, recession, demutualization threats and post‐demutualization era). Comparative analysis of the two firms' responses to the environmental changes found that, employing distinct specific strategies, both firms accorded tremendous attention and efforts to OI narration and re‐narration in order to regain OL. Four properties were identified regarding the interplay between OI narrative and OL: level, locus, mechanism and approach. Our study contributes to the literature by (a) empirically demonstrating the role of the OI/OL interplay in understanding the relationship between organizations and external changes; (b) empirically demonstrating the valence of a narrative approach to OI as a useful perspective to study organizational change and OL; and (c) identifying the role of narrative in leading and directing such changes.     

Stakeholder Actions and Their Impact on the Organizational Cultures of Two Tobacco Companies

We link the behaviors of executives and lawyers in two tobacco companies, in defending their tobacco products to the actions of stakeholders (e.g., the U.S. Government and Congress, medical researchers, consumers, public‐health organizations, tobacco‐control advocates, and insiders who have spoken out). Included in our analysis, which is based on publicly available documents spanning over a period of almost six decades, are critical incidents in which moral disengagement tactics were applied in the decision‐making process. We infer that the disengagement tactics applied by tobacco decision makers are indicative of what Schein and other organizational scientists describe as organizational culture. We equate the critical incidents to the espoused beliefs and values and underlying assumptions which comprise organizational culture and explain that the cultures of these two tobacco companies are not consistent with the stakeholder theory of management. We conclude that the critical incidents we analyze were immoral and the representatives were indeed accountable for these behaviors. From an organizational change perspective, we discuss how analyzing these critical incidents can serve to assess the extent to which an organizational culture is ethical. Furthermore, these critical incidents can be fed back to organizational decision makers and can then be used to initiate organizational changes.     

Group Support Systems,Power, and Influence in an Organization: A Field Study

Emerging group technologies are attracting attention from researchers and practitioners for the benefits they potentially offer in terms of communications, productivity, and decision-making capabilities within an organization. To date, research in this area has focused on process or outcome variables, substantively ignoring organizational context issues. This paper reports on a field study that investigated users' perceptions of the impact of group support systems on power and influence within the organization. The study was conducted within a division of a major U.S. software company specializing in the development of business software tools for desktop PCs. Fifteen purposively selected managers and nonmanagers, spanning diverse functional areas, were extensively interviewed for this study. Evidence gathered suggested that group support systems are perceived to exert an equalizing force on power and influence by (1) increasing participation in the decision-making process, (2) improving access to information, (3) improving access to persons, (4) reducing the “power distance” to key individuals, and (5) providing increased opportunities to influence the opinions of others. These results provide a basis for future studies that will attempt to clarify the relationships between organizational context and group technology usage.     

Critical Theorist,Postmodernist and Social Constructionist Paradigms in Organizational Analysis: A Paradigmatic Review of Organizational Learning Literature

In an effort to clarify alternative approaches to organizational analysis, this paper is concerned to stimulate the debate on how an inquiry into organizational phenomena, in general, and organizational learning, in particular, can be accomplished. Encouraging attention to different aspects of various paradigmatic approaches, the paper focuses on critical theory, postmodernism and social constructionism and how these paradigms have contributed and can contribute to the research in the subject domain of organizational learning. To this end, a paradigmatic review of the literature on organizational learning is offered in this paper. Organizational learning, as the study of learning processes of, and within, organizations, has attracted significant attention in academe since the early 1980s. There is a plethora of studies on organizational learning, which offer rich material for a paradigmatic review. This study highlights the need for further development of the field from alternative paradigmatic perspectives, with a view to generating more insights into the multifaceted, complex and changing nature of learning in contemporary organizations.     

Zwischen den Zeilen der Organisation

Between the lines of an organization. On postmodern thinking and its impact on organization theory and consultancyFollowing the discursive concept of postmodernism introduced by Jean-François Lyotard, this paper focuses on the impact of postmodern thinking (understood as a theory of difference) for organization theory and consultancy. Crucial for an application are basic organizational differences, like the relationship between formal and informal organization. By drawing on this difference this paper exemplifies that the main interest of postmodern thinking for our conceptual idea of organizations lies in a modified understanding and analysis of such fundamental organizational distinctions. Finally the implications of this postmodern understanding of organizations are outlined for the field of organization consultancy.     

The Internet and the International Management Literature: Its development and intellectual foundation

The Internet is now a common medium for consumers and an indispensable business tool globally. Despite this reality, research involving the Internet in international management has been limited. This is surprising in that, the Internet, as an external environmental force, is consequential in terms of its restrictions, privacy concerns, and preferred patterns of use which, as with other environmental imperatives, should supersede the smooth functioning of managerial functions. With this in mind, we examine the development of the literature in international management/businesses incorporating the Internet and unfold its intellectual structure in an effort to motivate future investigations. Specifically, we develop an interpretable spatial configuration of knowledge nodes in the strategy, general management, entrepreneurship, and international business literature. However, the literature for human resources and organizational behavior did not result in an interpretable MDS configuration. As a precursor to the three contributions to this special issue, we offer future research opportunities based on our analysis of the knowledge structure in the field as well as via a framework involving Internet regulations and firm structure.     

Interventions for musculoskeletal disorders in computer-intense office work: a framework for evaluation

Workplace interventions for work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) are usually multifaceted. These interventions tend to deal with multiple work organizational and physical risk factors and have components occurring at different organizational levels. The organizations are often changing, with shifting initiatives and priorities. Evaluation of such interventions poses challenges in documentation of implementation, reduction in exposures, and assessment of improved health outcomes. We describe a means-outcomes framework for evaluating field interventions that includes strategies, activities, objectives and metrics for outcomes using quantitative and qualitative methods. We demonstrate application of the framework to our work with a large newspaper, which builds on existing laboratory, aetiological and best practice evidence to improve musculoskeletal health. The newspaper had adopted several organizational strategies aimed at improving financial performance, including restructuring into teams, a major set of moves/renovations and introduction of new software. Concomitant WMSD-related organizational strategies include an ergonomics policy, human resources activities, promotion of team work, changes in environment and equipment specifications and development of information systems. We have found the framework useful for focusing the purpose of data collection and ensuring coverage of important components. At the same time, it provides sufficient flexibility to respond to the changing process of implementation.     

组织惯例概念界定及其结构模型：基于扎根理论的研究

近年来，得益于组织惯例的再定义和惯例二维观的提出，组织惯例在组织任务完成以及组织创新和发展中的根本性作用已经得到广泛的认同，相关研究随之呈现繁荣景象。但组织惯例所代表的集体行为模式由哪些方面构成或组织惯例的具体内容是什么，尚未得以揭示，使整个研究领域呈现出根基不稳的状态。 在梳理有关组织惯例的基本概念及其二维构成理论的基础上，选择天地华宇定日达惯例、宏康针织订单完成惯例和上海移动投诉处理惯例作为研究对象，通过访谈、观察和文档资料等方式获取相关数据，采用扎根理论方法，按照开放性编码、主轴编码和选择性编码的路径，对组织惯例的概念进行有效界定，析出各维度之间的相互关系，并构建组织惯例结构模型。 研究具体化组织惯例概念的构成，得出组织惯例由显性规范、共享基模、共倾行动、专业能力和执行异动5个维度构成；构建组织惯例概念模型，验证组织惯例由启示面和执行面构成以及两者之间的互动关系，即代表执行面的执行异动和代表启示面的其他4个维度之间存在互动关系；代表组织惯例基本原则和思想的启示面除了已有研究提出的集体层面的共享基模和共倾行动，还包括组织层面的显性规范以及个体层面的专业能力，且4个维度之间相互依存。 研究旨在具体化组织惯例的概念，深化组织惯例二维观理论，为该领域的深入研究创建基础，改变该领域当前对组织惯例概念的理解仅停留在单一、抽象层面的局面，并指导组织实践者深入理解组织惯例的内涵和意义。受扎根理论编码过程主观性的限制，有必要对调研资料进行反复比较和编码对比，进一步完善和检验所构建的概念模型。     

Perspectives on organizational justice: Concept clarification,social context integration,time and links with morality

Organizational justice is concerned with people's fairness perceptions in organizations and has been a popular field of study in the social sciences for at least 25 years. This paper reviews the core concepts, models and questions of organizational justice research. Four research areas that are particularly critical for the future of the field will be highlighted: concept clarification, social context integration, time and links with morality. These areas have received increased attention lately, but there are still relatively few empirical studies and theoretical frameworks that grapple with these issues. Concept clarification is vital for improved consistency of the field and for internal validity of studies. Situating organizational justice in social contexts and in time will be crucial to improve external validity and the usability of organizational justice findings in organizations. Understanding the links between morality and justice at an individual level, and at the organizational and societal levels is necessary if justice researchers want to live up to the promise of their field for society. For each of these four areas, recent developments will be reviewed and avenues for future research discussed.     

The Meaning,Antecedents and Outcomes of Employee Engagement: A Narrative Synthesis

The claim that high levels of engagement can enhance organizational performance and individual well‐being has not previously been tested through a systematic review of the evidence. To bring coherence to the diffuse body of literature on engagement, the authors conducted a systematic synthesis of narrative evidence involving 214 studies focused on the meaning, antecedents and outcomes of engagement. The authors identified six distinct conceptualizations of engagement, with the field dominated by the Utrecht Group's ‘work engagement’ construct and measure, and by the theorization of engagement within the ‘job demands–resources’ framework. Five groups of factors served as antecedents to engagement: psychological states; job design; leadership; organizational and team factors; and organizational interventions. Engagement was found to be positively associated with individual morale, task performance, extra‐role performance and organizational performance, and the evidence was most robust in relation to task performance. However, there was an over‐reliance on quantitative, cross‐sectional and self‐report studies within the field, which limited claims of causality. To address controversies over the commonly used measures and concepts in the field and gaps in the evidence‐base, the authors set out an agenda for future research that integrates emerging critical sociological perspectives on engagement with the psychological perspectives that currently dominate the field.     

Applying multilevel confirmatory factor analysis techniques to the study of leadership

Statistical issues associated with multilevel data are becoming increasingly important to organizational researchers. This paper concentrates on the issue of assessing the factor structure of a construct at aggregate levels of analysis. Specifically, we describe a recently developed procedure for performing multilevel confirmatory factor analysis (MCFA) [Muthen, B.O. (1990). Mean and covariance structure analysis of hierarchical data. Paper presented at the Psychometric Society, Princeton, NJ; Muthen, B.O. (1994). Multilevel covariance structure analysis. Sociological Methods and Research, 22, 376–398], and provide an illustrative example of its application to leadership data reflecting both the organizational and societal level of analysis. Overall, the results of our illustrative analysis support the existence of a valid societal-level leadership construct, and show the potential of this multilevel confirmatory factor analysis procedure for leadership research and the field of I/O psychology in general.     

Self-perceived occupational stress and distress in a Scottish police force

Abstract

This paper describes an empirical study (n = 699) of occupational stress in a Scottish police force. The self-perceived stress associated with a variety of organizational and opearational stressors was examined along with the associated distress in the police officers in terms of symptoms of anxiety, somatic complaint, severe depression and social dysfunction. The analysis revealed that in spite of the potential that police work offers for exposure to adverse opeational situations such as violence or death, the highest levels of associated stress lie in relation to organizational factors such as officers' perceptions of staff shortages, inadequate resources, time pressures, lack of communication and work overload. Differential rates of perceived stress are reported accordng to gender, rank and working location. This paper further validates previsous research on stress in British police and addresses the situation from a Scottish perspective.     

Self-perceived occupational stress and distress in a Scottish police force

This paper describes an empirical study (n = 699) of occupational stress in a Scottish police force. The self-perceived stress associated with a variety of organizational and opearational stressors was examined along with the associated distress in the police officers in terms of symptoms of anxiety, somatic complaint, severe depression and social dysfunction. The analysis revealed that in spite of the potential that police work offers for exposure to adverse opeational situations such as violence or death, the highest levels of associated stress lie in relation to organizational factors such as officers' perceptions of staff shortages, inadequate resources, time pressures, lack of communication and work overload. Differential rates of perceived stress are reported accordng to gender, rank and working location. This paper further validates previsous research on stress in British police and addresses the situation from a Scottish perspective.