Political opportunities and the quest for political recognition in Tibet,Taiwan, and Palestine

This paper introduces a political opportunity approach to conceptualizing the political recognition of states in the international system. The usefulness of the approach is demonstrated through a comparative analysis of the historical trajectories of Tibet, Taiwan, and Palestine in their attempts to become recognized as nation-states. I argue that political opportunities, alignment of interests, timing, and external patronage created political recognition outcomes observed for entities like Tibet, Taiwan, and Palestine. Recognition outcomes took multiple forms and included opportunities for recognition as well as whether or not a state government recognized these entities as independent states. More broadly, I argue that recognition outcomes for the cases in question are shaped by a larger political structure that I describe as the ‘opportunity structure for recognition.’     

Contextualizing Arab female entrepreneurship in the United Arab Emirates

ABSTRACT

Cultural and structural challenges within the Arab context are found to constrain women’s opportunities towards entrepreneurial development and activity. In addressing the call for feminist theorizing in entrepreneurship research, we bring together gender, identity and networking into the subjective experiences of Emirati female entrepreneurs. Through antenarrative perspectives, we demonstrate that developing cooperation with men is a viable and complementary means to addressing contextual challenges and achieving empowerment. Our contribution illustrates that Emirati female entrepreneurs’ multi-layered identity work manifests in a relational manner via efforts to strategically construct opportunity by means of engaging in discursive relationships with men.     

Mobile Phones and Entrepreneurial Identity Negotiation by Urban Female Street Traders in Uganda

Mobile phones have been posited as enhancing women's entrepreneurship and gender equality in developing countries, yet empowerment outcomes are unclear. This article considers how women in the gender‐segregated informal economy construct their entrepreneurial identity in relation to mobile phones and the discursive repertoires that marginalize and empower. Using data from interviews with six urban female street traders in Kampala, Uganda, it explores how these repertoires illustrate their sense of self, positioning and belonging to the business community. Normative representations and positioning of female traders can sideline entrepreneurial identity and over‐validate gender identity. But, participants also negotiate entrepreneurial identity construction in response to these marginalizing influences. Although the data demonstrate that participants are equivocal about their entrepreneurial identity or fit in business, some representations are more validating and offer a sense of belonging. The article concludes by highlighting the nuanced opportunities for social change their discursive repertoires may present.     

Leveraging symbolic capital: the use of blat networks across transnational spaces

In this article, we contribute to debates on how social networks sustain migrants' entrepreneurial activities. By reporting on 31 interviews with Eastern European migrants in the UK, we provide a critical lens on the tendency to assume that migrants have ready‐made social networks in the host country embedded in co‐ethnic communities. We extend this limited perspective by demonstrating how Eastern European migrants working in the UK transform blat social networks, formulated in the cultural and political contours of Soviet society, in their everyday lived experiences. Our findings highlight not only the monetarization of such networks but also the continuing embedded nature of trust existing within these networks, which cut across transnational spaces. We show how forms of social capital based on Russian language use and legacies of a shared Soviet past, are just as important as the role of ‘co‐ethnics’ and ‘co‐migrants’ in facilitating business development. In doing so, we present a more nuanced understanding of the role that symbolic capital plays in migrant entrepreneurial journeys and its multifaceted nature.     

Use of Overseas Migrants' Remittances to the Extended Family for Business Investment: A Research Note1

Abstract The extended family's role in economic improvement has been extensively debated. From a modernization theory perspective, the extended family is viewed as an institutional obstacle to economic progress, while a social capital perspective suggests that it is an “engine” insofar as it permits individuals to activate networks and pool resources beyond their own. This paper examines, from these perspectives, extended family influences on the use of remittances from transnational migrants. The research asks whether family influences are positive or negative and are more or less important than other factors in determining business investments. The research draws on interviews with 170 family heads in a small community in Pakistan. The results show that relatively little remittance income from family members working in the Middle East was channeled into business investments, despite government incentives offered to migrant households. Most of the extended family measures used in the research are statistically unimportant in explaining level of business investment. There thus appears to be little support for either modernization theory or social capital arguments on the role of the extended family. Of the five operationalized extended family dimensions only one was related to business investment, and that positively. However, “family” considerations are not irrelevant. The best predictors of business investment were a preexisting level of business exposure/experience within the family and whether or not the family head was aware of business investment opportunities. The results raise questions about the need to reconceptualize family influences beyond the formal dimensions of extended family structure.     

Back for business: The link between foreign experience and entrepreneurship in Latvia

Research shows that return migrants have a higher propensity to set up an entrepreneurial activity or be self-employed compared to non-migrants. We take a multidisciplinary approach and empirically study the case of Latvia as a migration donor country to learn how re-migrants participate in entrepreneurship back at home. We are interested if return migrants can be seen as a vehicle for entrepreneurship development and if it is worth looking at them as agents of business growth and innovation. Not only we measure the fact of being entrepreneurial but also explore sources that contribute to the higher propensity, attitudes to creating own business venture, level of ambitions and population sentiment towards entrepreneurs. Based on a nationally representative adult population survey of 8000 observations, we find that early-stage entrepreneurial activity, established business ownership as well as intrapreneurship for return migrants exceed that of the non-migrant population. The self-perceived capabilities to start business is higher for those who have lived abroad, and fear of failure is lower. Return migrants also have better business networks and higher growth and export ambitions. Latvian return migrant entrepreneurship is not necessity driven but rather motivated by opportunities. Migration experience, length of stay aboard and capital accumulated abroad are found to be significant predictors of probability to become entrepreneur when controlled for socioeconomic and personal factors.     

On the Need for an Anthropological Approach to Sport

Social relations of power are vital, embedded aspects of all sport. The Olympic credo of "Faster, Higher, Stronger" reflects the inherent ideological embodiment of power in sport. Sport, however, does not occur in a social vacuum, and therefore, who participates, and when, where, and how they participate, are all questions of socially embedded power critical to the study of sport. National states, across the entire ideological gamut, from fascist to Marxist, have tapped into the practices and symbolism of athletes and sport in order to aid in their legitimating discourses (Hoberman 1984). Yet the embedded power of sport is not limited to states and state-level societies, but is relevant to all societies. The relationships between sport and power extend from athletic bodies to social bodies in myriad, complex, intertwined patterns that penetrate and crosscut local specificities. This essay critically assesses recent contributions to the study of sport by suggesting how anthropological approaches to sport can complement existing sociological and historical perspectives within the burgeoning field of sport studies, while also making suggestions for other avenues of enquiry. With reference to four recent scholarly contributions, I will examine two general trends, globalization and sport and nationalism and sport that dominate the study of sport today. I also suggest ways in which these major themes incorporate perspectives on culture and power.     

Congregational Political Activity and Same‐Sex Marriage: Social Movement Theory and Evidence for Contextual Influence

We interpret three strands of social movement theory (social threat, opportunity structure, and resource mobilization) to understand religious congregations' political activity related to same‐sex marriage. Using a unique, national data set from the 2008 presidential election, we show the importance of the anti‐same‐sex marriage discursive opportunity structure (DOS) for facilitating, and occasionally constraining, congregational political activity. Other theoretical factors influence congregations under limited, although important, conditions. Our research develops a nuanced understanding of congregations' roles in social movements that prioritize institutionalized political activity and expands DOS theory in relation to local religious organizations.     

Women's entrepreneurship,neoliberalism and economic justice in the postfeminist era: A discourse analysis of policy change in Sweden

Since the early 1990s, there has been investment in women's entrepreneurship policy (WEP) in Sweden, which continued until 2015. During the same period, Sweden assumed neoliberal policies that profoundly changed the position of women within the world of work and business. The goals for WEP changed as a result, from entrepreneurship as a way to create a more equal society, to the goal of unleashing women's entrepreneurial potential so they can contribute to economic growth. To better understand this shift we approach WEP as a neoliberal governmentality which offers women ‘entrepreneurial’ or ‘postfeminist’ subject positions. The analysis is inspired by political theorist Nancy Fraser who theorized the change as the displacement of socioeconomic redistribution in favour of cultural recognition, or identity politics. We use Fraser's concepts in a discourse analysis of Swedish WEP over two decades, identifying two distinct discourses and three discursive displacements. Whilst WEP initially gave precedence to a radical feminist discourse that called for women's collective action, this was replaced by a postfeminist neoliberal discourse that encouraged individual women to assume an entrepreneurial persona, start their own business, compete in the marketplace and contribute to economic growth. The result was the continued subordination of women business owners, but it also obscured or rendered structural problems/solutions, and collective feminist action, irrelevant.     

The Gendered State of Business: Gender,Enterprises and State in Israeli Society

Whether the state provides different entrepreneurial opportunities for women and men and how is an issue rarely discussed in the growing literature concerning gender and organizations. Integrating gender and organization literature with political theories of the state, this paper compares women's entrepreneurship in one setting (Israeli society) across two time periods: before and after the foundation of a sovereign state. Our analysis identifies three manifestations of the gendering state through which it moulds business opportunities of men and women entrepreneurs. We examine how these manifestations: the delegation of economic actors, managing interactions between individuals and institutions, and administering a bureaucracy, shape access to capital and the structure of networks. The article contributes to the existing scholarship by extending the understanding of direct and indirect influence of the state on the reproduction of the image of the ideal entrepreneur and on gender differences in entrepreneurial activity.     

A Grounded Theory Model of the Ideal Business Image for Women

Recent changes in women's business identities present an opportunity to explore the social meanings conveyed by dress in a specific and changing context. Using a grounded theory approach, interview data from twenty-four business women were analyzed for recurrent themes. These women felt they could choose from a variety of dress images in order to express appropriate or socially acceptable meanings, including credibility and competence in business. A dynamic, multi-dimensional model of the meanings comprising an “ideal” image for business women is proposed. These meanings include conservatism, fashion, masculinity, femininity/sexuality, creativity, and conformity. The meanings are conceptualized as approximately opposing forces causing tensions, thus requiring conscious balancing by business women. Each meaning has an extreme which can endanger the credibility of the wearer. The balance of meanings is mediated by several contextual factors.     

Promoting Self Determination for Persons with Developmental Disabilities

As community inclusion efforts continue to develop, the recognition of the capacity and rights of persons with cognitive and learning difficulties to participate in planning their own programs has been increasingly acknowledged by providers. This paper presents a needs assessment which was conducted with a small group of people with disabilities, to ascertain their perspectives on community integration for the purpose of social and recreational activity. Anchored on acknowledgment of the rights of people with disabilities to exercise self determination, a focus group methodology was used to provide the opportunity for the client group to have a voice in developing their own recreation opportunities.     

Political Opportunity and Nested Institutions

Scholars use the concept of 'political opportunity structure' to explain how the political context affects the differential development and influence of ostensibly similar movements. Although the concept promises to become an important analytical tool for comparative studies, to date it is underspecified and undertheorized. It also faces new challenges in this era of increased transnational activism and more extensive scholarly recognition of activist ties across borders. In this paper I argue that assessing opportunity by looking exclusively at national political structures neglects the important role that international factors, such as alliances and transnational movements, play in constraining both states and their challengers. I begin by reviewing the literature on opportunity and drawing a synthesis between it and the literature on domestic influences of international politics. I argue that political institutions are nested in a larger international context, and that the tightness or looseness of that nesting affects the range of possible alliances and policy options available within states. I examine this framework by looking at New Zealand's decision in 1984 to prohibit port visits by nuclear-powered ships or ships that might be carrying nuclear weapons. I conclude by calling for more research that recognizes the interplay of national opportunities and international structures.     

Trends in the occupations of eminent black entrepreneurs in the United States

This study analyzes the occupations of black Americans who have been nationally recognized for their business achievements. Data from renowned encyclopedic sources of biographical information show that occupational niches that arose because of racial segregation and limited opportunities for blacks to participate in the economic mainstream, such as personal services and undertaking, are no longer important routes into the “black business elite.” Yet, these data also suggest that, during the 20th century, entertainment, beauty products, and advertising became major pathways into this elite because of an opportunity structure that promoted blacks’ participation in these occupational niches yet restricted it in others, notably, in construction and manufacturing.     

Sustaining Think Tanks in the Former Soviet Bloc

Think tanks in the former Soviet bloc face the stark challenge of sustainability. To survive and prosper, they have to be increasingly entrepreneurial and business-like and have to actively seek contracts from government and the international donor community. In this context, this paper discusses the diversification strategies of four think tanks identified to be particularly entrepreneurial in developing new lines of work. This includes commercial activities similar to those of consulting firms, and tapping the business community for donations by offering seminars or other products. The paper reviews how these institutions identified and assessed various opportunities, and how they promoted a new line of work. It also explores the rewards—financial and other—and the challenges that are created by the new types of work within the organizations.     

Hellenes and Romans: Oppositional characterological figures and the enregisterment of Istanbul Greek

Language users discursively circulate ideologies of identity, especially in stances taken while assigning social characteristics to enregistered personae. Previous research has demonstrated that with the Istanbul Greek (IG) diaspora, speakers use the emic terms of Ellines and Romioi to orient to or away from Mainland Greeks, respectively. In this paper, I discuss how IGs in Turkey relate such ethnonyms to linguistic features and how they rely on enregistered dialectal features to construct their ethnicity as Romioi in opposition to Ellines. These ethnonyms result in personae that are used stylistically, but in turn fractally (re)create differentiation into separate ethnic categories. Such sociolinguistic processes demonstrate how linguistic variation is socially embedded in a minoritized indigenous speech community. Studying variation in concert with ethnonym use shows how speakers add nuanced meaning to established identity categories and create new ones based on their lived experiences.     

Organizational Restructuring and the Achievement of an Equal Opportunity Culture

The Opportunity 2000 Campaign has recognized that equal opportunity policy change has to be accompanied by a process of culture change in organizations. However, sustaining commitment to an equal opportunity culture may be a difficult task in times of rapid and varied organizational change. In particular, the volume and scope of ‘restructuring’ that follow mergers, acquisitions, divestment, the introduction of internal markets, and other changes in business strategy often lead to ‘downsizing’, ‘delayering’, and outsourcing of business functions. This can have very variable outcomes for the careers of women managers. For them the experience of organizational restructuring is akin to participation in a lottery in which they are occasionally winners, but usually losers. This is the main finding from in-depth case studies of three large organizations in the public sector, pharmaceuticals, and financial services, which have all experienced some form of ‘restructuring’ over the last five years. The main conclusion of this research is that unless restructuring involves an expansion of managerial positions it is likely to disadvantage women managers. The reasons for this are that it leads to job losses in functions where women are concentrated; highlights the disadvantages of poor line manager support; reinforces exclusion from the valuable informal organizational networks that provide access to career development opportunities; and renders formal equal opportunity policy monitoring ineffective. These findings have considerable implications for organizational and national policy initiatives to achieve an equal opportunity business culture.     

Colonial criminology: A survey of what it means and why it is important

As the United States is experiencing unprecedented high rates of incarceration, especially of minorities and marginalized communities, racialized punishment has been addressed by many scholars (Alexander 2010; Wacquant 2001; Cole 1999, Tonry 2011; Stevenson 2014). Studies have shown the connection between racialized structures of inequality, punishment, and colonization (Agozino 2000, 2003; Irwin and Umemoto 2016; Bosworth and Flavin 2007). However, scholars have recognized a void in the discussion of colonial theory in the field of criminology (Agozino 2003; Cunneen and Tauri 2016; Bosworth and Flavin 2007). In this paper, I identify several ways in which criminology is closely tied to colonialism. I argue that a colonial criminology perspective assists in identifying power distinctions that construct notions of difference, thus providing a more nuanced understanding of crime, violence, and criminalization as a response to oppression and alienation. I focus primarily on colonialism in Hawai'i because of its fairly recent colonization and continuing indigenous struggle for Hawaiian sovereignty. Furthermore, Hawai'i is representative of racial and ethnic inequality and disparity within the United States criminal justice system, as the majority of both the adult and juvenile incarcerated populations in Hawai'i are of Native Hawaiian and/or Pacific Islander decent.     

BOOK REVIEW

As rates of self-employment and entrepreneurial activity grow in the U.S., sociologists are beginning to consider the causes and consequences of this form of employment more seriously. While the sociological contributions to entrepreneurial research take seriously the social context in which self-employment occurs, few studies focus explicitly on the effects of social and economic contexts on rates of self-employment in particular regions. I fill this gap by examining the effects of a variety of local labor-market, population, and economic characteristics on county-level self-employment rates in three predominantly rural states: Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. I find that counties with higher proportions of their labor forces in extractive industries and that have experienced greater declines in the primary sector had higher rates of poverty and unemployment; however, self-employment is negatively related to county-level poverty rates, indicating that self-employment may provide opportunities for those in rural counties undergoing economic transformations.