Embedding or Uprooting? The Effects of International Labour Migration on Rural Households in Armenia

The impact of international labour migration on human wellbeing and socioeconomic development in communities of origin is an important yet understudied issue in contemporary migration research. This study examines whether men's labour migration from rural Armenia to Russia and other international destinations enhances the economic and social connections of the left‐behind households to their communities or, on the contrary, undermines those connections and encourages household members' own migration. Using survey data, it compares families of migrants and non‐migrants with respect to ownership of productive and major non‐productive assets in the community and women's non‐farm labour force participation, their social engagement in the village, and their desires to migrate abroad. The results of statistical tests indicate that men's migration is negatively associated with households' asset ownership and with women's non‐farm employment. The results for women's social engagement in their villages are less consistent. Finally, regardless of economic attachment, social engagement, and a host of other factors, wives of migrants were significantly more likely to wish to move abroad than women married to non‐migrants, and the difference in propensity to emigrate between migrants' and non‐migrants' wives increases with duration of husband's migration. We situate these findings in the context of Central Eurasia's international labour migration system and discuss their implications for future migration trends and for socioeconomic development of Armenia and similar settings.     

“Transnational” Socio‐Cultural Systems and Ethnographic Research: Views from an Extended Field Site

This article discusses a widespread pattern of migratory moves that is often overlooked in contemporary research on transnational migration. Transnational theory has successfully highlighted the significance of migrants' attachments to people and places transcending the confines of nation‐states. By emphasizing, a priori, the national, this theory tends to overlook the full complexity and meaning of migrants' extra‐local socio‐cultural relations. Through an ethnographic study of dispersed family networks of Caribbean origin, I explore the wide range of migration practices in which differing actors engage and the nature of the sociocultural systems that emerge as migrants move between places.     

East European Jewish migration: inside and outside

This introductory article provides an overview of modern Jewish migration from Eastern Europe. It engages the foundational historiography of the field and explores intersections of Jewish migration with general migration theory. In addition to framing the six articles in this special collection, this essay presents longue durée factors linking today's post-Soviet diaspora communities on three continents with social and political trends beginning in the late nineteenth century and during the interwar period and postwar periods.     

The contribution of the intervention in social networks and community social work at the local level to social and human development

ABSTRACT

The primary task of community social work is building social networks by reinforcing people's resources and those of the different environmental and social contexts from three dimensions: personal development, social development and organisational development. The new information technologies today establish a relationship of communication with local communities and citizens that promotes proximity to social networks. Social intervention is supported by a set of methods from human geography that can be used as tools to create maps of the territory and the networks for planning, diagnosing and classifying the management of community network intervention. In this discussion we set out to analyse the contribution of the intervention in social networks as a means of achieving a new configuration of social networks at the local level. This information is obtained from semi-structured interviews with social workers and other professionals in the social sphere in municipalities with over 100,000 inhabitants in the Madrid region (Spain). The research results show that intervention in social networks locally multiplies the opportunities to enhance the quality of people's social relationships, thus expanding their social support by strengthening their bonds, their personal network and support systems; secondly, it increases empowerment to facilitate a type of intervention to strengthen human potential and to gain autonomy and full citizenship.     

Ambivalences of the emotional logics of migration and family reunification: emotions,experiences and aspirations of Bangladeshi husbands and wives in Italy

This article analyses the relational and emotional logics of migration, separation and reunification of Bangladeshi families in Italy. Migrant husbands are separated from their wives, with whom they have had little family life due to their migration, and seek family reunification. Wives’ migration due to family reunification, however, means separating them from their familiar environments and social networks. For this reason, some wives press for onward migration to the UK, where they hope that a larger Bangladeshi community and more social and cultural opportunities may provide a more fulfilling life compared to what they experienced in Italy. However, this means uprooting their husbands once again. The article observes the emotionally divergent dimensions among men and women as an element that can transform and redefine biographical projects and the migration trajectories in Europe of Bangladeshi families in Italy.     

A Welfare Trap? The Duration and Dynamics of Social Assistance Use among Lone Mothers in Canada

À la fin des années 1990, la politique de l'aide sociale canadienne s'est transformée, pour se concentrer sur la diminution de la «dépendance» ou de l'aide sociale à long terme. En utilisant des données de l'Enquête sur la dynamique du travail et du revenu (1996–2001) et l'analyse historique des événements, l'auteur étudie la durée de l'aide sociale chez les mères monoparentales et autres chefs de ménage. Ses résultats montrent que l'instruction des mères monoparentales et leur expérience du marché du travail constituaient des prédicteurs moins importants de la durée de l'aide sociale que leur histoire conjugale. Quoique les prestations qu'elles recevaient duraient généralement peu de temps, l'auteur a trouvé la preuve d'une dépendance néfaste, ou du «piège de l'aide sociale», après un contrôle de l'hétérogénéité non observée. C'est un exemple démontrant que recevoir de l'aide sociale est non seulement le résultat de trajectoires de vie particulières, mais façonne aussi la vie. In the late 1990s, the Canadian social assistance policy changed to focus on reducing “dependency” or long‐term receipt. Using data from the Survey of Labour and Income Dynamics (1996–2001) and event history models, we investigate the duration of social assistance receipt for lone mothers and other household heads. We find that lone mothers' education and labor force experience were less important predictors for their duration on social assistance than their previous marital history. Although receipt was generally short term, we find evidence of negative duration dependence, or a “welfare trap,” after controlling for unobserved heterogeneity. This indicates one way in which a welfare receipt is not only the result of particular life course trajectories but also shapes lives.     

Impact of Canadian Postsecondary Education on Occupational Prestige of Highly Educated Immigrants

Cet article utilise les données provenant de l'Enquête longitudinale auprès des immigrants du Canada (ELIC) couvrant la période 2000‐2004 afin d'évaluer l'emploi à durée déterminée et la réussite professionnelle des immigrants récents qui, bien qu'ayant obtenu un diplôme universitaire dans leur pays d'origine, ont choisi de s'inscrire dans un établissement d'enseignement postsecondaire canadien. La principale conclusion de l'article est que la réussite professionnelle des immigrants très instruits est affectée par le choix de l'enseignement post‐secondaire au Canada, toutes catégories socio‐démographiques et conditions d'avant ou après migration confondues. Quatre années après leur arrivée au Canada, les immigrants occupent des emplois nettement moins prestigieux que ceux qu'ils avaient avant la migration. Les immigrants qui ont poursuivi des études universitaires au Canada atteignent des meilleurs résultats professionnels que les non‐participants ou ceux qui ont choisi un collège communautaire. Néanmoins, la majorité des immigrants très instruits n'ont pas réussi à retrouver leur profession. This paper uses data from the Longitudinal Survey of Immigrants to Canada covering the period 2000 to 2004 to assess short‐term employment and occupational attainment of recent immigrants who, despite having completed a university degree in their countries of origin, chose to obtain additional credentials at a Canadian postsecondary institution. The main finding of this paper is that occupational attainment of highly educated immigrants is affected by choice of postsecondary education in Canada regardless of differences in sociodemographic, premigration characteristics, and postmigration conditions. Four years after entry, immigrants worked in jobs with significantly lower occupational prestige than those held prior to migration. Immigrants who pursued a university education in Canada attained highest occupational outcomes when compared to nonparticipants and those who chose a community college pathway. Nevertheless, the majority of highly educated immigrants failed to gain entry to the professions.     

Leveraging symbolic capital: the use of blat networks across transnational spaces

In this article, we contribute to debates on how social networks sustain migrants' entrepreneurial activities. By reporting on 31 interviews with Eastern European migrants in the UK, we provide a critical lens on the tendency to assume that migrants have ready‐made social networks in the host country embedded in co‐ethnic communities. We extend this limited perspective by demonstrating how Eastern European migrants working in the UK transform blat social networks, formulated in the cultural and political contours of Soviet society, in their everyday lived experiences. Our findings highlight not only the monetarization of such networks but also the continuing embedded nature of trust existing within these networks, which cut across transnational spaces. We show how forms of social capital based on Russian language use and legacies of a shared Soviet past, are just as important as the role of ‘co‐ethnics’ and ‘co‐migrants’ in facilitating business development. In doing so, we present a more nuanced understanding of the role that symbolic capital plays in migrant entrepreneurial journeys and its multifaceted nature.     

Retired and Making a Fresh Start: Older Russian Immigrants Discuss their Adjustment in Israel

Social research on immigrants has usually centred on working age groups or youth, while studies on retired immigrants were typically driven by the social work, geriatric, or nursing agendas, centring on the issues of health, stress, social, and medical services. Trying to explore migration in old age from a broader sociological perspective, this qualitative study addressed different aspects of the socio‐cultural adjustment of older Russian immigrants of the 1990s in Israel. Drawing on group discussions and in‐depth interviews conducted in two major urban centres, the study covers senior immigrants' attitudes toward the host Israeli society; material privations and coping tools; intergenerational families; patterns of social organization, communication, and cultural consumption; ties with places of origin in the former Soviet Union (FSU); and the perceived sum total of losses and gains from migration. The findings indicate that older immigrants have developed multiple ways for meaningful identification with Israel and generally perceived their resettlement experience as difficult but positive. As their social networks were limited to the Russian immigrant community, most elders did not see their poor knowledge of Hebrew as a major integration obstacle. The main reported difficulties were in the areas of housing, low income, and weakening ties with younger family members.     

Social quality and community citizenship

Community citizenship refers to the possession by members of a community of a range of social and cultural rights and responsibilities by virtue of their membership of that community and as a distinct element of their national citizenship rights. This paper deals with 'community as ethnos': viz. a cultural community that manifests itself most clearly in minority ethnic and/or religious groups. Criteria for the effective introduction of community citizenship are discussed in relation to the notion of social quality, with particular regard to its elements of community empowerment and social cohesion, along with social inclusion and socio-economic security. Prototypes of community citizenship are introduced as follows: (i) full community citizenship; (ii) partial, undifferentiated community citizenship; (iii) partial, differentiated community citizenship ('ethnic citizenship'); (iv) 'discriminated citizenship' where notional formal access to national citizenship is granted to members of all communities but is negated by institutional discrimination. It is argued that steps taken to enhance the empowerment and social cohesion of communities in the last category above can, with the consent of national government, lead to the institution of at least partial community citizenship. Die Kategorie des formellen Mitgliedsstatus ('citizenship') in einer Gemeinschaft bezieht sich auf den Besitz einer Reihe sozialer und kultureller Rechte sowie auf Verantwortlichkeiten, die den Mitgliedern einer Gemeinschaft aufgrund eben dieser Mitgliedschaft zuwächst und die zudem ein eindeutiges Element ihrer nationalen Staatsbürgerrechte darstellen. Dieser Aufsatz beschäftigt sich mit 'Gemeinschaft als Ethnos' im Sinne einer kulturellen Gemeinschaft, die sich am deutlichsten in minoritären ethnischen oder religiösen Gruppen manifestiert. Unter Bezug auf die mit dem Konzept von Sozialer Qualität verbundenen Konnotationen werden die Kriterien für die formelle Mitgliedschaft in Gemeinschaften diskutiert, und zwar insbesondere im Hinblick auf die Element des 'empowerment' von Gemeinschaften, des sozialen Zusammenhaltes, der gesellschaftlichen Inklusion und in sozio-ökonomischer Sicherheit. Es werden verschiedene prototypische Formen formeller Mitgliedschaft in Gemeinschaften vorgestellt: (I) vollständige Mitgliedschaft; (II) partielle, nicht-differenzierte Mitgliedschaft; (III) partielle, differenzierte Mitgliedschaft ('ethnische Mitgliedschaft'); (IV) 'diskriminierte Mitgliedschaft', bei der den Mitgliedern aller Gemeinschaften zwar nominell ein Zugang zum nationalen Bürgerstatus zugestanden, dieser aber zugleich durch institutionelle Diskriminierung wieder negiert wird. Das Argument geht dahin, daß durch Schritte zu einer Verstärkung des 'empowerment' und des sozialen Zusammenhaltes in Gemeinschaften der letztgenannten Kategorie mit Zustimmung der nationalen Regierung die Institutionalisierung einer zumindest partiellen Mitgliedschaft in Gemeinschaften herbeigeführt werden kann. La ciudadania comunitaria se refiere a la posesión por parte de miembros de la comunidad de un amplio rango de derechos sociales y culturales asi como de responsabilidades en su calidad de miembros de una comunidad y como un elemento distintivo de sus derechos nacionales de ciudadania. Este articulo trata de 'la comunidad como etnos': el tipo de comunidad que se manifiesta más claramente en grupos étnicos minoritarios y/o religiosos. Se discuten los criterios para la introducción efectiva de la ciudadania comunitaria relacionándolos con la noción de calidad social, con especial mención a sus elementos de apoderamiento comunitario y cohesión social, junto con los referidos a la inclusión social y seguridad socioeconómica. Se introducen diferentes prototipos de ciudadania comunitaria: (i) plena ciudadania comunitaria; (ii) ciudadania communitaria parcial y no diferenciada; (iii) ciudadania comunitaria parcialy y diferenciada ('ciudadania é'); (iv) 'ciudadania discriminatoria' donde el concepto formal de acceso a la ciudadania nacional está garantizada para todos los miembros de la comunidad pero negada por la discriminación institucional. Se argumenta que los pasos en la dirección de favorecer el apoderamiento y la cohesión social de las comunidades en la última categoria pueden lievar, con el consentimiento del gobierno nacional, al menos a la creación de una ciudadania comunitaria parcial. La citoyenneté communautaire se réfère à la possession par les membres d'une communauteé d'un ensemble de responsabilités et de droits culturels et sociaux, en vertue de leur appartenance à cette communatué et en tant qu'élément distinct de leurs droits de citoyenneté nationale. Cet article traite de 'la communauté comme ethnos', c'est à dire d'une communauté qui se manifeste le plus clairement dans les groupes ethniques et/ou religieux minoritaires. Les critères d'une présentation efficace de la citoyenneté comunautaire sont abordés en lien avec la notion de qualité sociale, avec une attention particulière apportée à ses éléments de capacitation ('empowerment') communautaire et de cohésion sociale, ainsi qu'à l'intégration sociale et la sécurité socio-économique. Des modèles de citoyenneté communautaire sont présentés comme suit : 1) citoyenneté communautaire totale; 2) citoyenneté communautaire partiale et indifférenciée; 3) citoyenneté communautaire partiale et différenciée ('citoyenneté ethnique'); 4) 'citoyenneté discriminatoire', quand l'accès imaginaire formel à la citoyenneté nationale est accordé aux membres de toutes les communautés mais est nié par la discrimination institutionnelle. Les auteurs soutiennent que les étapes vers un renforcement de l'empowerment et de la cohésion sociale des communautés de cette dernière catégorie peuvent, avec le consentement du gouvernement national, mener à l'instauration d'une citoyenneté communautaire moins partiale.     

Social embeddedness in a harmonized Europe: the social networks of European migrants with a native partner in Belgium and the Netherlands

Although intra‐European migration is often considered relatively easy to realize given European citizens' right to freedom of movement, settlement in another European country can still be experienced as socially disruptive. Insights in the insertion processes of European migrants, nevertheless, remain rather scarce. In this study, we analyse the social networks of European nationals with a native partner in Belgium and the Netherlands. The analysis is based on survey data from the EUMARR project (n = 576). First, we study the size and composition of European migrants' local family and friendship networks, and the frequency of contact with these networks. Second, we connect intra‐EU movers' insertion routes to investments in transnational networks in their home country. The results reveal how size, composition and contact with the local and transnational network change over time. Children help to maintain contact with both the local and transnational family network and form a bridge for parents to meet own friends in the host country. Moreover, having own friends and own family around matters for contact frequency with the local networks.     

Unequal networks: comparing the pre‐migration overseas networks of Indonesian and Filipino migrant domestic workers

Previous studies of Asian migrant domestic workers' pre‐migration overseas networks have tended to be ethnographic, small‐n case studies such that it is unclear if network differences between migrants are due to individual‐ or country‐level differences or both. This article draws from an original survey of 1,206 Filipino and Indonesian domestic workers in Singapore and Hong Kong to reveal statistically significant differences in the pre‐migration overseas networks of these two nationality groups even after controlling for migrants' educational attainment, marital status, employment status, age, year of first migration, and survey location. Multiple regression analysis highlights how Filipino respondents are more likely than Indonesian respondents to have known existing migrants prior to their first migration from their homeland. Filipino respondents' overseas networks are also significantly larger, more geographically dispersed, and comprise more white‐collar contacts. These findings open up new terrain for migration scholars to study the impact of these nationality‐based network differences on the two groups' divergent migration experiences and aspirations.     

Organization as a theatre of performance

In this paper we introduce Bergson's philosophy of "action, process and movement" and its relevance for social science and the study of organizational culture. Bergson's philosophy of change argues against the spatialisation of thought in which phenomena are broken down into discrete components to be numbered, sequenced and manipulated: rather he argues for a view of time as qualitative; intuition as situated within experience rather than about it; the importance of the body in social experience and the importance of morality and religion in social life - in short and embodied conception of culture. Bergson's culture is socialised time actualised in experienced duration or durée - culture is always in motion, and does not need culture clash to drive change, but cultural expression and formulations are not, which runs counter to functionalist and psychoanalytic views of culture. Creativity, or the élan vital , is the human impulse to organise, but to improvise rather than to locate, divide and control. Culture grounded in experienced time and driven by the élan vital is in ceaseless motion - it is duration because its is en-dured as a multiplicity rather than as a unity. Where heroic leaders in treatments of organizational culture invite us the change our place in the world, in Bergson's thought they invite us to change out time - our qualitative experience of duration. We examine these arguments through a review of Bergson's work, concluding that Bergson's resonates with postmodern approaches to culture which shift our attention from signification to implication.     

The health experience of Irish people in a North West London 'community saved'

This paper describes the development of a 'community saved' among first generation Irish immigrants in London. A 'community saved' is defined by its containment of numerous personal relationships formed over time; it is 'densely knit' and 'bounded'. Within this paper links are described between the development and survival of this Irish immigrant community, with its emphasis upon both family ties and work as a means of enhancing social cohesion, and its members' lived health experience. Social theory in its most comprehensive form, as a 'tool' of social research which seeks to provide explanations of events in the real world, provides a unifying theoretical framework for the study. The development of 'social capital', or the growth of values such as trust and reciprocity that facilitate societal functioning and community life, provides the main unifying theme linking community life to health experience. Precisely how it does so may mean moving, at times, in and out of empirical data. It involves participants using their own words and their own phrases to describe their particular experience: an exposition beyond the scope of mere statistical measurement. Cette article offre un portrait d'une 'communauté sauvée' parmi des immigrés irlandais Londinien de la première génération. Une 'communuaté sauvée' se défine par son endiguement de plusiers rapports crées depuis longtemps. C'est une communuaté unie et bornée qui met en valeur les rapports familiales et le travail comme moyens d améliorer la cohésion sociale. L'article brosse un tableau des liens entre le développement et la survivance de cette colonie irlandaise, et ses expériences vis àvis de la santé. La théorie sociale, dans sa forme la plus compréhensive, c'est àdire comme un instrument de recherche sociale qui s'addresse à expliquer les événements dans la vie réelle, fournit ici un cadre théorique unifiant. Le développement du 'biens d'équipement' où la croissance des valeurs telles que la confiance et la réciprocité, valeurs facilitant le fonctionnement de la societé et la vie associative, fournit la thème qui unit la vie associative aux expériences salutaires.     

Rights of Foreign Workers and the Politics of Migration in South-East and East Asia

The issue of cross‐border migration in South‐East and East Asia is linked to the integration of regional, if not global, labour markets. The types of labour that are currently in demand have changed substantially since the 1990s in terms of (1) overall magnitude, (2) gender composition, and (3) increased diversification. This paper, however, focuses upon those workers classified as unskilled as they constitute numerically the largest and most vulnerable group. The challenges to provide adequate protection from, and prevention of, exploitative and abusive practices that seriously minimize the socio‐economic benefits for these workers are linked to migration policies and the issue of rights in the origin and destination countries. This paper's objective is to provide a broad outline of the emerging trends and issues revolving around contemporary cross‐border labour migration and the politics of migrants' rights in South‐East and East Asia, illustrated by the difficulties experienced with the ratification of the 1990 United Nations Convention on the Rights of All Migrants and their Families (ICMR). The data this paper is based upon were collected for a report commissioned by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) with fieldwork carried out in seven countries located in the Asia Pacific region. It is argued that ratification of the ICMR is obstructed by politics and by a lack of political will. A rights‐based approach to the protection of migrant labour is thus related to a number of macro and micro level issues, revolving around development and practices of “good governance” in addition to interstate relations. This means that the promotion of migrants' rights requires a holistic approach addressing national and transnational issues in an era of increasing mobility across borders.     

Consuming the transnational family: Indonesian migrant domestic workers to Saudi Arabia

Abstract There is heated debate in contemporary Indonesia about the rights and regulation of transnational women migrants, specifically about the ‘costs to families’ of women working overseas, but little attention has been given to women migrants' own views of family or women's own motivations for migration. In this article, which is based on field work in a migrant‐sending community in West Java, I focus on migrant women's narratives of transnational migration and employment as domestic workers in Saudi Arabia. I contribute to the literature on gender and transnational migration by exploring migrants' consumption desires and practices as reflective not only of commoditized exchange but also of affect and sentiment. In addition, I show in detail how religion and class inflect low‐income women's narrations of morally appropriate mothering practices. In conclusion, I suggest that interpreting these debates from the ground up can contribute towards understanding the larger struggles animating the Indonesian state's contemporary relationships with women and Islam.     

Neoconservatism and the Canadian pro-family movement*

Le mouvement pro-famille est né au Canada en 1983 grǎce à une campagne d'organisation autour de plusieurs thèmes symboliques liés à la défense de la famille traditionnelle et des valeurs morales conservatrices. Le mouvement s'est limité dans un premier temps à des sorties de caractère rhétorique contre le féminisme, les droits des homosexuels, l'éducation sexuelle, le divorce sans culpabilité et l'avortement. Cependant, depuis 1987, il s'associe de plus en plus activement aux thèmes politiques du néo-conservatisme. S'appuyant sur les données recueillies en 1986 et 1987 à l'aide d'un questionnaire envoyé par la poste à un échantillon national de 812 membres d'expression anglaise, l'auteur de cette communication avance des hypothèses quant à la probabilité que le mouvement réussisse à entraǐner une mobilisation autour de revendications touchant la fiscalité et les réductions des services sociaux. Les données sont examinées sous l'angle de la relation entre l'idéologie d'un mouvement social et l'héritage culturel de ses membres ordinaires. The pro-family movement organized in Canada in 1983 around a number of symbolic issues related to a defence of the traditional family and conservative moral values. In its nascent years, it restricted its efforts to rhetorical attacks against feminism, gay rights, sex education, no-fault divorce, and abortion. Since 1987, however, it has increasingly promoted a neoconservative agenda. On the basis of data collected in 1986–87 in a mail-out survey of the national (Anglophone) membership (N=812), this paper speculates about the movement's likelihood of mobilizing support around fiscal issues and social service cutbacks. These data are discussed with reference to questions about the relationship between social movement ideology and the experiences and cultural heritage of rank-and-file supporters.     

Managing Contradiction: Civic Stratification and Migrants'Rights1

Political and academic interest in cross‐national migration has generated two very different and potentially polarized positions. One perspective emphasizes the continuing power of the nation state, while the other sees migration, and more specifically migrants' rights, as the manifestation of an emergent ‘post‐national’ society. This article offers a conceptual framework which addresses this polarization through the concept of civic stratification (Lockwood, 1996). In illustrating its application, the study shows how such an approach goes beyond a traditional citizenship framework (e.g., Marshall, 1950) in considering degrees of partial membership, but remains cautious with respect to claims about universal, transnational rights.     

LIVRES

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Attachment to Community and Civic and Political Engagement: A Case Study of Students

Youth's low level of civic and political engagement may detrimentally affect the health of communities and the democratic system. This paper examines the role of community attachment in explaining youth's levels of civic and engagement. This examination requires an evaluation of existing measures of community attachment and their relevance for understanding youth's experiences. The paper uses a student sample, highlighting a group of youth who have a degree of variation in their experiences of community attachment. We find that subjective measures of community attachment are related to volunteering and voting, but the objective measure of community attachment, that is, years of residence, affects voting and not volunteering. Different mechanisms explain civic engagement versus political engagement. As such, different strategies are required to combat low levels of civic versus political engagement. Le manque d'engagement civique et politique de la jeunesse peut avoir un effet néfaste sur la santé des communautés et sur le système démocratique. Cet article examine le rôle de l'appartenance communautaire pour expliquer le niveau de participation civique et politique des jeunes. Cette recherche nécessite une évaluation des mesures existantes de l'appartenance à une communauté et de leur pertinence pour la compréhension des expériences des jeunes. Cet article se base sur un groupe d'étudiants pour illustrer une population de jeunes avec un niveau d'attachement communautaire variable. Nous avons remarqué que les mesures subjectives de l'attachement à la communauté sont liées au bénévolat et au vote, alors que les mesures objectives de l'attachement, comme la durée de résidence, affecte le vote et non le bénévolat. De différents processus peuvent expliquer l'engagement civique par rapport à l'engagement politique. Ainsi, des stratégies différentes sont nécessaires pour lutter contre la faiblesse des niveaux de participation civique et politique.