Managing Risk: Self-Regulation Among Homeless Youth

While homeless youth are characterized by their risky behaviours we know little about how they conceptualize and manage risk in their everyday lives. This article will flesh out one aspect of a doctoral study that explored homeless youth’s conceptualizations of risk, by unearthing their self-regulation practices. Deploying an ethnographic lens, 18 youth were followed over a 1–4 year period to capture their risk perception and practices as they unfolded. The findings question the relevancy of the prominence of expert discourses in theories of risk. The study’s empirical findings run counter to the thesis that expert systems predominate in practices of self-regulation. In contrast, practices of self-regulation were not so much in response to expert discourses or social norms but were balanced by personal experience, intuition, and situated knowledges. Results provide valuable insights into the interplay of lay and expert knowledges in the construction of risk among an identified risky and at-risk group. Lessons can also be drawn for clinical practice and the relevancy of the expert role that social workers play in the lives of homeless youth.     

Schizoid Personality Traits Among the Homeless Mentally III: A Quantitative and Qualitative Report

This paper examines the interplay among schizoid personality traits, chronicity of homelessness, and engagement in treatment in a homeless mentally ill population. Both qualitative and quantitative information will be provided about a sample of 125 homeless mentally ill individuals receiving psychiatric treatment in a comprehensive services drop-in clinic. Naturalistic observations and a case vignette suggested that schizoid traits were prevalent and may have been playing a role in treatment engagement and chronicity of homelessness. This hypothesis was tested using quantitative research methods. The results showed that schizoid personality disorder and schizoid personality traits were prevalent in the sample. The presence of schizoid traits was positively correlated with chronicity of homelessness. Further, two schizoid traits (being content without sexual involvement with others, and lacking close friends or confidants) were positively correlated with remaining in treatment at 3 months. Implications of these findings for future research and treatment design will be discussed.     

Risk Detection and Self‐Protection Among Homeless Youth

Utilizing qualitative interviews with a large sample of 145 homeless youth seeking services at homeless youth service agencies from across three U.S. cities (Los Angeles, Denver, and Austin), this study sought to explore youths' perspectives on ways in which they detect risk and protect themselves on the streets. Results indicated that youth use a combination of internal cues (affective responses) and external cues (reading people) to detect danger, although many times danger was described as undetectable. Certain contexts, includes those that were unfamiliar, difficult to escape, or involved drugs were described as most dangerous. In response to these dangers, youth employed self‐protection strategies such as carrying weapons, banding together with trusted others, isolating, or seeking programing to leave the streets.     

Schizoid Personality Traits Among the Homeless Mentally Ill: A Quantitative and Qualitative Report

This paper examines the interplay among schizoid personality traits, chronicity of homelessness, and engagement in treatment in a homeless mentally ill population. Both qualitative and quantitative information will be provided about a sample of 125 homeless mentally ill individuals receiving psychiatric treatment in a comprehensive services drop-in clinic. Naturalistic observations and a case vignette suggested that schizoid traits were prevalent and may have been playing a role in treatment engagement and chronicity of homelessness. This hypothesis was tested using quantitative research methods. The results showed that schizoid personality disorder and schizoid personality traits were prevalent in the sample. The presence of schizoid traits was positively correlated with chronicity of homelessness. Further, two schizoid traits (being content without sexual involvement with others, and lacking close friends or confidants) were positively correlated with remaining in treatment at 3 months. Implications of these findings for future research and treatment design will be discussed.     

Factors Associated With Substance Use Disorders Among Traumatized Homeless Youth

This study aimed to identify homeless youths’ lifestyle and trauma-related risk factors as well as protective factors associated with alcohol use disorder or no disorder and drug use disorder or no disorder. Youth receiving homeless services in Denver (n = 201), Austin (n = 200), and Los Angeles (n = 200; N = 601) completed quantitative interviews assessing demographic information, alcohol and drug use, homeless lifestyle risk factors, trauma-related risk factors, and protective factors. Findings showed differences in trauma-related risk factors between alcohol and drug use disorders, but not homeless lifestyle risks. Protective factors predicted substance use disorders beyond risk factors. Understanding trauma-related risk and protective factors associated with substance use disorders could improve interventions.     

Promoting Empowerment Among LGBTQ Youth: A Social Justice Youth Development Approach

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer-identified (LGBTQ) youth are a population with a unique set of service needs. Existing research on effective service methods with LGBTQ youth is limited. Youth empowerment holds potential as an approach that can impact well-being among youth who face discrimination. The current study explores the relationship between the social justice youth development framework (Ginwright and James, New Directions Youth Dev 96:27–46, 2002) and youth empowerment in a sample of LGBTQ youth. Multiple regression analysis of data collected through a community-based youth program identified critical consciousness and community engagement as significant predictors of empowerment. Findings suggest that programs that promote these factors among LGBTQ youth using the social justice youth development framework may enhance empowerment thereby increasing other aspects of well-being.     

Understanding Condom Use Decision Making Among Homeless Youth Using Event-Level Data

This is one of the first qualitative event-based studies to understand the various mechanisms through which multiple factors influence condom use decision making among homeless youth. Event-level interviews that explore characteristics of the environment surrounding sexual events were conducted with 29 youth who were asked to describe two recent sexual encounters. In thematic analyses of data across events, reasons that youth gave for engaging in unprotected sex included the expectation of having sex and use of alternative methods of protection against pregnancy. Other nonevent factors that influenced condom use decision making were related to attributes of the partnership (e.g., testing, trust and love, and assessments of risk) and attributes of the youth (e.g., perceptions of diseases, concerns over pregnancy, and discomfort using condoms). Additional event analyses conducted within the same individuals found that decision making was influenced by multiple interacting factors, with different pathways operating for event and nonevent factors. Future interventions should consider taking a multilevel and individualized approach that focuses on event-based determinants of risky sex in this population.     

A Qualitative Analysis of Cultural and Social Vulnerabilities to HIV Infection Among Gay,Lesbian, and Bisexual Asian Youth

Abstract

The study reported here was undertaken to investigate cultural and social barriers that may increase HIV risk among gay, lesbian, and bisexual Asian youth. Interviews and focus groups were used to collect the data because they are well suited for this type of exploratory research. A total of 15 gay, lesbian, and bisexual Asian youth (7 females and 8 males) were recruited. Most of the participants (n = 11) self-identified as lesbian or gay. The mean age was 20.7, ranging from 17 to 24. Twelve participated in one of three focus groups while the remaining three were interviewed. Categories and themes identified include: (1) the lack of sex education at home, (2) homophobia in Asian families, (3) unresponsive health and social service providers, (4) lack of social support, (5) negative stereotypes, (6) ideal standards of beauty, and (7) negative perceptions of safer sex practices among Asian lesbian and bisexual women. HIV prevention strategies are suggested based on the recommendations and needs of our participants.     

Enhancing Empowerment and Leadership Among Homeless Youth in Agency and Community Settings: A Grounded Theory Approach

The purpose of this qualitative study with homeless youth (ages 18–24) was to understand their involvement in decision-making within agency and community settings. Three focus groups with eight, six and six homeless youth were conducted at an urban drop-in center and shelter from June to August 2008. Emergent themes include youth voice and ownership in agency and community programming, emotional safety, power and reciprocal support. Grounded theory is used to interpret findings and develop working hypotheses to guide future studies on empowering homeless youth to assume greater leadership involvement in their own lives, in social service agencies and in their surrounding communities.     

Comparison of Social Estrangement Among Youth Who Are Accessing Homeless Services in St. Louis,Missouri and Austin,Texas

The purpose of this study was to compare young people seeking homeless services in two distinct geographic locations (Austin, Texas and St. Louis, Missouri). To determine differences between the two populations, the study used a guiding conceptual model of social estrangement that included four domains: institutional disaffiliation, psychological dysfunction, human capital, and identification with homeless culture. A sample of homeless youth (N = 96; 46 from St. Louis, 50 from Austin) were recruited through youth-serving agencies. Findings indicate two unique samples of street-involved youth in regards to affiliation with formal institutions, family support, and informal peer networks, suggesting distinct service needs.     

Paradoxes of Providing Rural Social Services: The Case of Homeless Youth

Abstract Economic and demographic changes in rural areas continue to introduce big‐city problems in small towns. These communities' ability and willingness to respond are likely to be influenced by the geography, culture, and array of organizations in rural places. But how these characteristics of rural places shape local response is hard to predict and as yet unexplored. This article reports data from interviews with social‐service providers and homeless youth in a rural county in the northwestern United States, drawing insights from both groups about the challenges of providing social services in rural places. Findings about drug use, sexual abuse and prostitution in rural communities illustrate how aspects of a rural context can influence the way small towns address social problems.     

Health Issues of Homeless Youth

The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of what is currently known about the health issues of homeless youth, focusing on risk-taking behaviors, health status, and access to care. The paper addresses the health issues of homeless youth in the U.S. within an international context. Existing data suggest that homeless adolescents exhibit high rates of risk-taking behaviors, face additional barriers to access of health care, and suffer from a high burden of poor health. However, most research on the health of homeless youth has been cross-sectional and has relied on convenience sampling. Future research should focus on conducting more methodologically rigorous studies on the specific health needs of homeless youth. Research should include eliciting information directly from the youth about their preferred health care interventions.     

Gender Differences in the Path From Sexual Victimization to HIV Risk Behavior Among Homeless Youth

ABSTRACT

Experiencing sexual victimization prior to becoming homeless is common among homeless youth and is associated with increased HIV risk behavior. This study examined mediating variables that underlie this association, adding to the understanding of gender differences in these paths. Participants were homeless youth in Los Angeles recruited through service access centers who completed a computerized self-administered interview in English or Spanish using an iPad. Findings indicate a high presence of sexual victimization across both genders. Female participants experienced posttraumatic stress disorder and subsequent engagement with exchange sex, whereas male participants were primarily involved in substance use risk pathways. Results indicate paths in the association between sexual victimization and HIV risk behavior differ between male and female homeless youth. Gender-specific, mental-health-informed interventions targeting sexual risk reduction are warranted.     

Substance Use, Self-Esteem, and Self-Efficacy Among Homeless and Runaway Youth in New Orleans

Each year, nearly 1.7 million children and adolescents in the US run away or are forced out by their caregivers. Although several studies have examined numerous risk and protective factors among homeless and runaway youth (HRY), little is known about this population’s self-efficacy. This cross-sectional study investigates substance use, self-esteem, and self-efficacy in 51 HRY in New Orleans. Results include high rates of substance use disorders, lower self-esteem and self-efficacy compared with that of non-HRY in previous studies, and no significant correlation between substance use and self-esteem or self-efficacy. The authors interpret these findings and discuss their implications for practice and future research.     

A Mixed Methods Study of Recently Homeless Youth Efforts to Sustain Housing and Stability

This study examined the process of establishing post homeless lives among 51 recently homeless youth in two major urban centers in Canada. A mixed methods strategy was employed to characterize this process. Quantitatively, a range of mental health, community integration, and quality of life measures were employed four times over the course of 1 year to describe how these indicators of wellbeing shifted in this period. It was found that over the course of 1 year gains were not made in community integration, quality of life and mental health were highly variable, and hope declined significantly. Further, it was found that youth in supported housing arrangements experienced better mental health and community integration. Qualitatively, we identified three major stages in the process of exiting homelessness. These stages included a period of substantial fluctuation and instability, a period of gaining a basic level of stability but being demoralized due to difficulties making progress with life goals, and a period of making some gains with life goals which cultivated a sense of hope. Progress across these stages, which took place in a timeframe considerably longer than 1 year, was characterized by a range of setbacks, individual and systemic challenges, and trauma which were addressed through a persistent effort facilitated by youth resilience and key supports.     

Predictors of Change in Self-Reported Social Networks among Homeless Young People

This research investigates changes in social network size and composition of 351 homeless adolescents over three years. Findings show that network size decreases over time. Homeless youth with a conduct disorder begin street life with small networks that remain small over time. Caregiver abuse is associated with smaller emotional networks due to fewer home ties, especially to parents, and a more rapid loss of emotional home ties over time. Homeless youth with major depression start out with small networks, but are more likely to maintain network ties. Youth with substance abuse problems are more likely to maintain instrumental home ties. Finally, homeless adolescents tend to reconnect with their parents for instrumental aid and form romantic relationship that provide emotional support.     

The Family and Social Networks of Recently Discharged Foster Youth

Many youth leave foster care with disrupted relationships with family and others in their social networks. Previous research has documented the severe adversity that former foster youth face in the transition to young adulthood. Some of these difficulties are at least partially related to a lack of social support that results from frayed relationships. The purpose of this research was to examine the role that social support plays in the transition to adulthood. It was hypothesized that foster youth with higher levels of social support would make more successful adaptations to early adulthood than youth without that support. Ninety-seven former foster youth were followed for 2 years. Youth reported low levels of “feeling close to parents,” but higher levels of “closeness” were expressed for other relatives. Findings were mixed. Organizational involvement and having many “close” friends were associated with better outcomes. On the other hand, family contact and family support was inversely associated with resiliency. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

The Social Construction of Deviant Behavior in Homeless and Runaway Youth: Implications for Practice

This study examined the social construction of deviance in a sample of homeless and/or runaway youth in metropolitan Phoenix. In depth semi-structured interviews with 14 youth were conducted, and the data were transcribed and analyzed using a qualitative research computer program. The findings from the study point to an emerging theory, which suggests that ambiguous local policies relevant to homeless youth (e.g., trespassing, loitering) resulted in their selective enforcement by local security and police. Respondents described the ways that they adapted their behaviors to the environmental stressors resulting from these policies. Implications for practice are discussed.

A Shelter-Based Stress-Reduction Group Intervention Targeting Self-Esteem, Social Competence, and Behavior Problems Among Homeless Children

It has been estimated that families with children now account for 40% of the population who become homeless. Given the consistency of research showing the potentially damaging effects of homelessness as a stressor upon the social and emotional development of children, the question of importance is how to best intervene to reduce the likelihood or severity of such possible negative consequences. The approach taken here involved the development of a Shelter-Based Stress-Reduction Group Intervention Targeting Self-Esteem and Behavior Problems Among Homeless Children.Data were collected on 52 elementary-school–age children from family-shelter facilities in Central Florida. The child's level of psychosocial functioning was assessed using the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (CSEI) and Achenbach's Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the repeated measures ANOVA techniques applied to those subjects were nonsigni-ficant, the relatively small sample size in study conditions led to consideration of the magnitude of effect sizes obtained in treatment and comparison groups. The changes in the intervention group's mean scores on key psychosocial outcome variables of interest were consistent with hypotheses, providing suggestive evidence of the potential utility of stress management training.     

Social Isolation Among Racial/Ethnic Minority Immigrant Youth

Despite the long sociological tradition that focuses on the social adaptation of racial/ethnic minority immigrant youth, little work investigates whether these groups are socially isolated. However, existing research provides a strong foundation from which researchers can further explore this important topic. This article begins by discussing relevant theories and ongoing debates regarding minority immigrant youth's social relationships. Next, the article surveys literature across social science disciplines that describes relationships minority immigrant youth have (or in some cases, do not have) with three important social actors: their peers, teachers, and parents. The article concludes by providing recommendations for future research.