Intergenerational continuity in parenting: a review and theoretical integration

Abstract

Objective: This review evaluates literature on how parenting behaviors are passed from one generation to the next in families by providing a new definitional framework to organize existing work, utilizing this framework to review literature on intergenerational continuity in parenting behaviors, and proposing a new developmental framework for understanding the etiology of intergenerational continuity in parenting behaviors.

Design: The present review examines 31 studies of intergenerational continuity in parenting, summarizes the findings offered by these studies, and integrates this existing literature in a theoretical framework for considering the etiology of intergenerational continuity in parenting behaviors.

Results: Results indicate that parental warmth, hostility, and behavioral control each demonstrate intergenerational continuity, and that internalizing and externalizing behavior serve as potential mediators of intergenerational continuity across all three types of parenting behaviors.

Conclusions: Parenting behaviors falling in the warmth, hostility, and behavioral control domains each demonstrate modest continuity across generations. Internalizing and externalizing behaviors developed by children in response to parenting in their family of origin may persist and cause similar patterns of parenting when these children grow up and start their own families. Partner psychopathology and parenting styles may moderate these externalizing and internalizing pathways to intergenerational continuity in parenting.     

Age-Condensed and Age-Gapped Families

ABSTRACT

Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey, Mature Women's Cohort, this study found that not only is a sizable minority of mature women likely to reside with their aging parents and relatives in any given survey year, but that this trend increases over time. Unexpectedly, black women were found to be more likely than white women to reside in age-gapped families, signifying that they were more likely than white women to delay childbirth. Black women also were found to have greater frequencies and prevalence of residing in intergenerational families than white women. This pattern indicated, by extension, that intergenerational responsibilities might be a greater factor contributing to delayed childbirth for black women than was the case for white women. As expected, few aging parents or relatives were found in age-condensed families. The presence of grandchildren, rather than a respondent's own children, apparently accounted for this finding. This pattern suggested that, for maturing women who had been teenage mothers, the flow of intergenerational responsibilities proceeds more extensively in the direction of subsequent generations rather than toward previous generations.     

Intergenerational Programs

Abstract

The purpose of this research was to provide an overview of the current state of intergenerational programming in one Canadian city. One-hundred and seven individuals in charge of programming in youth and seniors' organizations completed a telephone survey about intergenerational programs. More than one-third of organizations surveyed reported offering intergenerational programs, and the majority of these perceived their program to be successful. Participants added that there were no current overlaps in services, though a variety of gaps in and barriers to intergenerational programming were identified. There was also significant interest in and ideas for offering a diverse range of programs in the future. It was concluded that while interest in offering intergenerational programs was high, multiple barriers currently exist to offering such programs.     

Technology-Mediated versus Face-to-Face Intergenerational Programming

Abstract

Elderly computer novices received 1-on-1 e-mail training, which enabled them to communicate electronically with elementary school-aged pen-pals. A traditional intergenerational visiting program was conducted concurrently. Program evaluation revealed that the intergenerational visiting program was rated favorably by 88% of the participating seniors and the intergenerational e-mail program was rated favorably by 57% of the seniors. Yet, only 6 (out of 23) seniors expressed interest in continuing to e-mail their pen-pals beyond the program period. While technology may never take the place of human contact for some seniors, increased computer support as well as arranging for e-mail pen-pals to meet in person might help boost the popularity of this form of intergenerational communication.     

Intergenerational Solidarity in Korean Immigrant Families

Abstract

The purpose of this qualitative study is to advance the concepts of the intergenerational solidarity model by using samples of Korean immigrant families. This advancement will be useful for subsequent quantitative studies. This exploratory study uncovered multiple themes that support intergenerational solidarity between Korean immigrant grandparents and grandchildren. These themes characterized supportive relationships based on affection, consensus, a mutual exchange of resources, familial norm, and structural factors such as cohabitation or religion. At the same time, this study showed disagreement and tensions between generations which resulted from different attitudes toward roles and values, as well as being burdened by care. The results of this study provide basic perspectives to clinicians, service providers, and researchers and will improve their understanding of intergenerational relationships among Korean immigrants.     

Intergenerational Interaction Through Reminiscence Processes

Abstract

Introduction: The interest in intergenerational programmes is increasing. However, there is a need for evaluation and the development of a theoretical framework to explain the mechanism of changes in attitudes of participants which is the purpose of this paper.

Method: From July to December 2002 an intergenerational intervention was conducted with 111 students and 32 elders, who shared their life stories during class time. A Focus group technique was used to evaluate the programme and a theoretical framework was developed to explain the mechanism of changes in attitudes of adolescents towards elders and the attitudes of elders towards adolescents.

Results: The results showed that stereotypes and prejudice exist, from young people towards elders and from elders towards young ones. The theoretical framework developed showed why and how participants changed their views towards each other in an intergenerational programme using reminiscence processes as a means of interaction.

Conclusion: Although the study had some limitations, it was valuable in showing that older people had some negative images of adolescents. It also showed why and how participants changed their view towards each other.     

Farm Friends

Abstract

Intergenerational programs have proliferated in community and educational settings, yet research on their effects and impacts lags (Kaplan, 2002; Kuehne, 1998/99), and the benefits and learning that occur for participants are under-theorized (Abrams and Giles, 1999; Smith and Yeager, 1999). Similarly, insufficient research has been reported on the learning that takes place in environmental education programs. In this paper we focus on the relationship that developed between community elders and elementary school-aged children during the first year of an intergenerational environmental education project. Our goal is to better understand these experiences so we can sustain participation and develop programs rich in rewards for elders and children. We are particularly interested in the nature of intergenerational learning that occurs when children are brought together with community elders for environmental education that is integrated into a school program. Granville and Ellis (1999) propose that for a program to be defined as intergenerational, it must show a benefit and value for both generations and “demonstrate an improvement in the quality of life for both, and from that, an improvement in the quality of life for all” (p. 236). We concur with these criteria and designed a program linking community elders with farming backgrounds with one class of 18 grade-seven girls for the purpose of fostering environmental consciousness. In this paper we focus our attention on the learnings of participants in order to understand the mutuallearning that occurs in an intergenerational environmental program.     

Impact of an Intergenerational Program on 4th Graders' Attitudes Toward Elders and School Behaviors

Abstract

The rapid growth of the elderly population coupled with research demonstrating the existence of ageist stereotypes even among very young children have led to the rise of intergenerational programs. Very limited research has been conducted, however, to demonstrate the effectiveness of these programs in producing attitudinal change or other beneficial outcomes for at-risk children. This study examined the impact of an intergenerational program on children's attitudes toward elders and on their school-based behaviors. Eighty-one 4th grade children enrolled in an inner-city school participated in the study. Forty-one children, with matched seniors partners, engaged in activities based on the 4th grade core curriculum within an outdoor classroom environment while the remaining 40 children participated in usual core curriculum activities. At the conclusion of the program those children who participated in the program had significantly more positive attitudes towards the elderly and significantly better school behavioral grades than did non-participating students. Implications and recommendations for intergenerational programming are discussed.     

Intergenerational Community Action and Youth Empowerment

Abstract

Empowerment theory can provide a useful framework for the design and evaluation of intergenerational community-building programs. Using an intervention research approach that draws heavily on empowerment theory, the author designed, facilitated, and evaluated an innovative model for intergenerational community engagement involving undergraduate students and older adult residents of an assisted living facility. This “Intergenerational Community Action Group” met at the assisted living facility throughout a school year to engage in group-building activities, to discuss and choose an issue of concern to them in the community, and to plan and implement an action project to address the issue. This article discusses the use of empowerment theory in intergenerational community action and similar programs, and reviews the empowerment outcomes for youth participants in the Intergenerational Community Action Group.     

Keynote 3. Living in the Valley of Death

Abstract

In 2003 alone, HIV/AIDS killed more than three million people, of which between 2.2 and 2.4 million were from Sub-Saharan Africa. This disease is having a devastating effect on the previously firm foundations of intergenerational relationships in affected countries. For many nations in Africa, Asia and South America, life has become a mirage, a paradox in which almost everything is overshadowed by the pangs of death. Poverty, HIV/AIDS and, surprisingly, compassion are the combined common causes of death. Consequently, social, ecological, economic, political and educational systems are almost entirely dislocated. Traditions demand that the young ones should outlive their elders. So there is a deliberate effort on the part of the elderly to embrace death in attempting to be compassionate. This paper is an attempt to explore this scenario with the aim of articulating the linkage between poverty and HIV/AIDS, and proposing ways of reducing their impact through intergenerational programming.     

Humor Your Way to Good Health

ABSTRACT

Although humor has been used in many ways, humor practices have not been fully conceptualized or utilized as a means to impact major concerns on a societal level. In this intergenerational model demonstration, humor practices were re-conceptualized and used as an effective vehicle for communicating messages to impact a societal issue, overweight and obesity among children. This objective was operationalized through an intergenerational project of the Legacy Leadership Institute on Humor Communication and Health (LLIHCH). Legacy Leaders were trained to use humor practices to convey messages about healthy eating and physical activity to children. They participated in interactive instruction on key topics (nutrition, humor practices, intergenerational relationships, children and schools, leadership, and instructional methods. Legacy Leaders used this training to conduct the Humor Your Way to Good Health program in two public elementary schools. Assessments indicate the children benefit significantly from the Humor Your Way to Good Health intergenerational program in terms of the knowledge acquired and its application to making choices that support healthy behaviors. The unique humor approach captures the attention and imagination of children. The intergenerational approach unites children and adults in a joint quest for healthier lifestyles. Together, they are addressing the epidemic of overweight and obesity among children.     

Intergenerational Programming in Asia

Abstract

Based on concerns about the common social challenges in Asia and the desire to bridge this part of the world with the established intergenerational field, the Asian MetaCentre for Population and Sustainable Development Analysis at the National University of Singapore organized the first international conference in Asia on intergenerational programming in Singapore in March 2002. This conference, entitled “Re-engaging the Generations: Intergenerational Programming in Social Services,” attracted participation from both government and non-governmental agencies in Singapore, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines, China, Hong Kong, Vietnam, and Japan, as well as representatives from the U.S. and Sweden.

The Singapore conference is used as a “data source” by which to examine the terrain of intergenerational programs and possibilities in Asia. Highlights are drawn from the presentations conducted at the conference and from the interaction and discussions that took place among the participants. Particular attention is paid to conference participants' efforts to ascribe meaning to the concept of intergenerational programming in their respective societies. In describing the conceptions and models of inter-generational programming highlighted at the conference, this article aims to address some of the common challenges related to intergenerational program development in many Asian countries and underscore some of the distinctive aspects of programs found in this region.     

Teen mothers who are daughters of teen mothers: Psychological intergenerational dimensions of early motherhood

IntroductionResearchers have shown that being a daughter of a teenage mother is a risk factor regarding the possibility of having early, unprotected sexual intercourse and of falling pregnant. The experiences of young mothers in such situations and the aspects of intergenerational transmission in the mother–daughter relationship have not been well investigated.ObjectivesThis study analyses the experience of motherhood in young mothers (18–20 years at the time of the interview/15–16 at the time of their pregnancy) who are daughters of teen mothers themselves from the psychodynamic perspective of intergenerational transmission.MethodsSix young mothers from Southern Italy were selected and interviewed. A semi-structured interview was used to explore the early experience of pregnancy and motherhood and their relationship with their own mothers. The interviews were analysed through Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA).ResultsFive superordinate themes emerged: I didn't want, I didn't see and I didn't feel; Adolescence? I suddenly became a mother; History repeats itself again and again; Confused Spaces and How difficult is coming into the world?ConclusionAdolescent mothers, who themselves are daughters of teen mothers, seem to have difficulty in representing the meanings associated with their experience of pregnancy and motherhood. A lack of narrative transmission of the experience of pregnancy from mothers to daughters emerged. The implications for research and social policies will be discussed.     

Intergenerational Connections Through Book Discussion Groups

Abstract

Learning about intergenerational programming prepares health care professionals to be more competent and compassionate in working with a changing society. A unique teaching approach using intergenerational book discussion groups helps students learn about elders and provides a mutually beneficial experience. Assumptions, myths and biases held by each generation are often dispelled. Values and beliefs are clarified as members from differing generations learn about similarities and honor differences. The assignment becomes more than a technical learning situation and becomes one where friendships evolve and a deep respect for others develops. This article discusses how to plan and implement an intergenerational book discussion group for application within a variety of settings.     

Cultural Perspectives from Aotearoa/New Zealand

Abstract

Intergenerational programmes recognise the relationships between the young and old as mutually important to both age groups and to society in general. While intergenerational programmes are a fairly new venture in New Zealand, the early childhood curricu-lum-Te Whariki, the woven mat, is a document which is based on the relationships between people and their environment. It is an ecological model where the context of a child's life is a critical factor in determining well-being, a sense of belonging, communication, a desire to explore, and contribution to society. These are the living strands of Te Whariki which are woven together to provide a sense of place from which children can grow strong and confident. These strands also apply to older people as they move through life's changes. This paper will explore the ways in which Te Whariki is an intergenerational curriculum that can be applied to any context and any age.     

Service Learning with Rural Older Adults

Abstract

The purpose of this qualitative study was to examine the effects of a service-learning project with rural older adults on social work students' choice of working professionally with older adults upon graduation. Service learning is a course-based community service experience designed to enhance students' understanding of course content while meeting an identified community need at the same time. The service-learning intergenerational project consisted of ten hours of face-to-face interaction between a BSW student and an older adult living in rural South West Virginia and the city of Charleston. Twenty-one undergraduate social work students attending the Micro Practice course participated in the study. Data collection consisted of face-to-face interviews guided by a set of open-ended questions. Data analysis revealed that participation in the intergenerational project did not change a students' choice of major but it increased their desire to explore the field of aging.     

Commentary

Abstract

The Family and Medical Leave Act provides unpaid leave but a key component is its intergenerational structure, permitting employees to take time off from work to care for an infant as well as an ill elderly parent. However, in an effort to provide paid leave, 23 of 28 states dropped the elder care provision in new initiatives introduced between 2000 and 2003. This article argues that in reforming leave policy in the future, the leave should be paid, remain intergenerational, cover more workers, and be adaptable to changing family patterns in an aging society. Also discussed is California's paid leave law, which meets these criteria.     

Intergenerational Programs and Practices in China: Results Based on a Web Search Method

ABSTRACT

In the midst of an aging population trend and increased concerns about elder care, the Chinese government has developed policies that aim to strengthen family support systems and ensure older adult engagement in community life. One domain of related intervention that has received relatively little attention and systematic study in China is in the area of intergenerational programming. To gain a sense of the breadth and types of intergenerational programs emerging in China, the authors employed a web search method utilizing Google and Baidu search engines. Findings indicate a fair amount of program innovation and diversity as well as a need for additional programmatic and policy measures to strengthen and support intergenerational relationships in family and community contexts.     

Side-by-Side on Stage - Music and Drama Form a Bridge between Acting Students and People with Dementia in an Intergenerational Group Work

ABSTRACT

This article presents an intergenerational music and drama therapy groups comprised of twelve people with dementia residing in a nursing home and twelve acting students from the community.

The qualitative research aimed to explore the students’ attitudes towards elderly people, and to understand the role of creative arts therapies in facilitating intergenerational relationships. Qualitative content analysis of students’ weekly reports and questionnaires revealed the gradual process of connection between the students and people with dementia. Engaging in a creative act helped the students to discover the strengths and abilities of people with dementia and to see beyond the disease.     

The State of Our Art

Abstract

In the second part of this two-part paper, the author examines intergenerational program research and evaluation based on a framework derived from a collaborative UNESCO (2000)-sponsored review of the intergenerational program field. In Part One, which appeared in the previous issue, conceptual foundations for intergenerational programming were considered, taking into account theories that focus on individuals and groups within interactive contexts, those that focus primarily on individual development, and conceptually based program evaluations. In Part Two, effects of intergenerational program participation are described, with emphasis on program activities and various program contexts. Challenges and questions emerging from the literature are presented, identifying the need for a greater use of theory in research, more cross-cultural research, expanded outcomes, and solutions to some of the methodological challenges in intergenerational program research and evaluation.