社会资本结构与中小企业创新--一项基于结构方程模型的实证研究

本文针对中小企业核心竞争力的关键问题——创新展开分析,根据我国中小企业的组织特征,在综合分析了国外有关企业创新理论的基础上,我们提出了中小企业基于社会资本的创新理论,在传统创新理论解释变量集中加入了企业规模,并区分了社会资本构成的两大因素:结构性社会资本和认知性社会资本;在问卷调查的基础上,通过探索性因素分析和结构方程建模(SEM),对我国中小企业技术创新影响因素进行了结构测量和机理分析,认为:(1)中小企业的创新结构和知识管理水平受到结构性、认知性社会资本和企业人力资本的综合影响;(2)中小企业认知性社会资本既直接地、又通过影响企业的结构化社会资本间接地影响了企业的技术创新水平,显示出社会资本对中小企业创新的影响存在明显的分层结构和不同路径。     

城市劳动力市场中的人员流动及其决定机制——兼析大城市的新二元结构

本研究借用了劳动力市场阶层化研究的思路和方法,利用专项调查获取的大量数据,实证分析了城市劳动力市场中的流动及其决定机制。本文的理论假说如下:第一,中国的城市劳动力市场包含了外劳和本地居民两大部分,但这两部分从业人员所属的市场阶层以及在市场阶层之间的流动状况是不相同的。第二,从非正规部门流向正规部门的上升移动会带来工资收入的增加,但本地居民和外劳,以及外劳中的民工与城镇居民实现流动的机会是不均等的。第三,在求职过程中选择什么性质的部门、以何种方式在不同部门之间流动,主要取决于以户籍为代表的制度因素,而不是个人的教育水平、工作经历等人力资本。本文的结论是:通过劳动力市场的竞争机制,人力资本的利用状况明显改善,但由于还存在制度歧视,劳动力市场依旧是二元性质的。消灭城市内部的新二元结构是下一步改革的重要目标。     

工人工资决定因素前沿研究综述

劳动者工资如何决定是劳动力经济学中的一个核心问题。本文依据现有的研究文献并加上个人的理解,对工人工资决定因素的前沿文献研究进行梳理和归纳。工人工资主要受制于三个方面因素:工人自身的人力资本特征、市场(或企业)特征以及工人与企业(市场)之间的互动关系。工人自身的人力资本特征是工人获得工资的基础,工人与企业(市场)之间的互动关系反映的是企业(市场)与工人的信息学习和工作安排比较优势在工资决定机制中的作用,市场特征反映的是制度层面对工人工资的影响。工人工资的形成是多种因素共同作用的结果。     

The Effects of Gain Sharing on the Basic Wage: The Case of IMPROSHARE

Although gain-sharing plans are typically promoted to workers as a way of increasing total compensation, workers are often concerned that gain-sharing bonuses may become substitutes for future wage increases that would have occurred in the absence of the plan. I examine the theoretical and empirical interaction among wages, bonuses, effort, and productivity in firms that implemented IMPROSHARE, a well-known gain-sharing plan. Using longitudinal data obtained from a detailed survey questionnaire, I find that one can usually reject both the perfectly competitive model in which effort is held constant (in which case bonuses are a perfect substitute for wages) and the “pure gravy” model (in which bonuses completely complement the wage rate). There is no evidence that higher bonuses lead to higher relative wages. The results, however, are not very robust. Although the net effect of the bonuses on the wage rate is usually negative, it is not always statistically significant.     

Higher Education Levels,Firms’ Outside Options and the Wage Structure

Abstract. We analyze the consequences of an increase in the supply of highly educated workers on relative and real wages in a search model where wages are set by Nash bargaining. A key insight is that an increase in the average education level exerts a negative externality on wages through its positive externality on the firms’ outside option. As a consequence, the real wage of all workers decreases in the short run. Since this decline is more pronounced for less educated workers, wage inequality increases. In the long‐run a better educated work force induces firms to invest more in physical capital. Wage inequality and real wages of highly educated workers increase while real wages of less educated workers may decrease. These results are consistent with the US experience in the 1970s and 1980s. Based upon differences in legal employment protection we also provide an explanation for the diverging evolution of real and relative wages in Continental Europe.     

Assessment of the Regional Economic Impacts of Catastrophic Events: CGE Analysis of Resource Loss and Behavioral Effects of an RDD Attack Scenario

We investigate the regional economic consequences of a hypothetical catastrophic event—attack via radiological dispersal device (RDD)—centered on the downtown Los Angeles area. We distinguish two routes via which such an event might affect regional economic activity: (i) reduction in effective resource supply (the resource loss effect) and (ii) shifts in the perceptions of economic agents (the behavioral effect). The resource loss effect relates to the physical destructiveness of the event, while the behavioral effect relates to changes in fear and risk perception. Both affect the size of the regional economy. RDD detonation causes little capital damage and few casualties, but generates substantial short‐run resource loss via business interruption. Changes in fear and risk perception increase the supply cost of resources to the affected region, while simultaneously reducing demand for goods produced in the region. We use results from a nationwide survey, tailored to our RDD scenario, to inform our model values for behavioral effects. Survey results, supplemented by findings from previous research on stigmatized asset values, suggest that in the region affected by the RDD, households may require higher wages, investors may require higher returns, and customers may require price discounts. We show that because behavioral effects may have lingering long‐term deleterious impacts on both the supply‐cost of resources to a region and willingness to pay for regional output, they can generate changes in regional gross domestic product (GDP) much greater than those generated by resource loss effects. Implications for policies that have the potential to mitigate these effects are discussed.     

Planning for increased productivity

The planning process in manufacturing industry is increasingly affected by the assessments which are made of human productivity, and a need to take account of the interplay between human needs and the demands of capital intensive and technologically controlled manufacturing environments. This paper examines a number of these aspects, and in particular those concerning the present and past relationship between Technology and Manufacturing. The study portrays the differing emphasis given by industries and countries to the allocation of the wealth produced by manufacturing, and in particular examines the possible problems which could be created by the increasing proportion of total value added being allocated to wages and salaries. The paper examines the possible ways of countering this trend, which could of course lead to inadequate resources being allocated to investment to sustain future growth. The article concludes by commenting on recent United Kingdom experience and in particular the use of incentive payment schemes based upon added value.     

The Determinants of Corporate Profitability in the UK Electrical Engineering Industry

The structure-conduct-performance model is extended to include managerial factors. Multiple regression of data for 45 companies in the electrical engineering industry shows market share, capital intensity, growth of sales, tightness of control of working capital and decentralisation to contribute significantly to an explanation of corporate profitability.     

Human Capital Accumulation,Social Mobility and Migrations

This paper studies the effects of migrations on growth and income distribution when social mobility is imperfect. Workers migrate in response to differences in expected wages between home and a foreign country, but their choice depends also whether they qualified themselves as skilled workers by accumulating human capital or not. Such an activity has a cost, which depends on each agent’s family background: sons of skilled workers have lower human capital accumulation costs. The effects of labour migrations on per capita income depend only on the degree of social mobility: if there is a difference in the cost of accumulating human capital for the sons of educated and non-educated people, migrations reduce total earnings of unskilled workers in the receiving country, and increase those of skilled workers.     

The Male–Female Wage Gap and the Firm Effect: The Case of Young Italian Workers

Abstract. The idea that wages are determined by firm and individual characteristics suggests that there is a firm effect that influences wage differentials. This paper presents the results of an empirical analysis of gender wage differentials — based on INPS data for people between the ages of 20 and 25 employed in the private sector in 1996 — which takes into account the characteristics of workers and firms using a two‐level random‐effects model. Firm variables proved to be significant, and the proportion of females in the firm showed a negative effect on the wages of both men and women.     

THE IMPACT OF IMMIGRATION ON THE STRUCTURE OF WAGES: THEORY AND EVIDENCE FROM BRITAIN

Immigration to the UK, particularly among more educated workers, has risen appreciably over the past 30 years and as such has raised labor supply. However studies of the impact of immigration have failed to find any significant effect on the wages of native‐born workers in the UK. This is potentially puzzling since there is evidence that changes in the supply of educated natives have had significant effects on their wages. Using a pooled time series of British cross‐sectional micro data on male wages and employment from the mid‐1970s to the mid‐2000s, this paper offers one possible resolution to this puzzle, namely that in the UK natives and foreign born workers are imperfect substitutes. We show that immigration has primarily reduced the wages of immigrants—and in particular of university educated immigrants—with little discernable effect on the wages of the native‐born.     

How planning and capital budgeting improve SME performance

This paper focuses on the use of strategic planning among small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in the UK manufacturing sector. It analyses the relationship between the intensity of strategic planning, business objectives, perceived performance, changes in the business environment and the use of capital budgeting techniques. Capital budgeting is of particular interest as an area of investigation, and is one which has seldom featured in previous studies of strategic planning behaviour. These issues were investigated via a survey of UK manufacturing SMEs carried out in the winter of 1996/97.

The key results suggest that SMEs incorporate a range of objectives into their strategic planning process, with profit improvement perceived to be the most important objective, followed by sales growth. SMEs engaged in detailed strategic planning are more likely to use formal capital budgeting techniques, including the net present value method, which is consistent with maximising the companys' value. Perceived profitability and success in achieving organisational objectives were positively associated with planning detail, suggesting that strategic planning is a key component improving performance. Planning detail was also associated with a significantly higher level of perceived change in the business environment.     

Adjustments of wage-tenure profiles with respect to entry age

This paper adds a new empirical finding of the impact of workers’ entry age on wage-tenure profiles to the literature, which might be explained by human capital and deferred compensation models. I analyze two different data sets stemming from personnel records of a large German company and from German linked employer-employee data. The analyzed company employs a quite large share of older workers but does not hire many older workers. Estimated earnings functions indicate that wage-tenure profiles are adjusted with respect to entry age: workers with older entry age earn higher entry wages and have lower wage growths than younger workers. The linked employer-employee data confirm the findings from personnel records as most firms pay higher entry wages and flatter wage-tenure profiles to older new entrants. The personnel data set and the linked employer-employee data set have their advantages and disadvantages so that an analysis of both enhances the credibility of the main results.     

Human Capital,Wages and Family Interactions

The majority of studies of the returns to human capital investment have generally considered the relationship among wages and individuals’ investment in education. However, among factors which increase individuals’ stocks of human capital and affect their labour market performances there are variables linked to the relevant social environment, such as the family. This paper takes into consideration intra‐generational relations which form between spouses through marriage, as well as inter‐generational relationships between parents and their sons/daughters. The empirical work investigates the effects of some family background variables on individuals’ economic performances, using data drawn from the 1995 survey of household income and wealth conducted by the Bank of Italy. The results of the analysis show that individuals’ wages do not depend only on their own human capital endowment, but also on that of other family members (parents and partners).     

R&D,productivity, and market value: An empirical study from high-technology firms

Although prior research has addressed the influence of production activity and research and development (R&D) on productivity, it is not clear whether production and R&D affect the market value of a firm. This study proposes and verifies an R&D value chain framework to explore the relationship among productivity, R&D, and firm market values, as measured by Tobin's q theory. By doing so, we attempt to link new theoretical insights and empirical evidence on the effects of R&D efforts and basic production activities to the market valuations of high-technology firms. The value chain data envelopment analysis approach was proposed to estimate parallel-serial processes of basic operations and R&D efforts. This approach can be used to simultaneously estimate the profitability efficiency and marketability efficiency of high-technology firms. This area has rarely been studied, but it is particularly important for high-technology R&D policies and for further industrial development. Using the R&D value chain perspectives of model innovations and extensions proposed in several previous studies, we examined the appropriate levels of intermediate outputs. Production efficiency and R&D were combined to estimate the appropriate levels of intermediate outputs for high-technology firms. Based on the intermediate output analyses, we developed an R&D efforts decision matrix to explore and identify operational and R&D efficiency for high-technology firms. Our sample firms are displayed on a four-quadrant action grid that provides visual information on current short-term operational efficiency and decision making on long-term R&D strategic positions. The empirical findings from the R&D value chain model can provide information for policymakers and managers and suggest the adoption of various policies that place more emphasis on profitability and marketability strategies.     

The Impact on Inequality of Raising the Minimum Wage: Gap‐narrowing and Reranking Effects

Raising the minimum wage may reduce inequality by increasing the wages of low‐skill workers, but it may also increase inequality due to negative impacts on employment that produce wage losses. Using previous estimates of the elasticities of wages and employment to changes in the minimum wage in Colombia and Brazil, we show that the net impact on inequality of increasing the minimum wage may depend on the distributional weights used for inequality measurement. The results are obtained by decomposing the Gini index into reranking and gap‐narrowing effects. Inequality‐increasing reranking effects, which are associated with job losses, may dominate inequality‐decreasing gap‐narrowing effects, which are associated with wage gains, when high weights are placed on workers with low earnings. For standard distributional weights, however, the likely net impact is a reduction in wage inequality.     

Search and Rest Unemployment

This paper develops a tractable version of the Lucas and Prescott (1974) search model. Each of a continuum of industries produces a heterogeneous good using a production technology that is continually hit by idiosyncratic shocks. In response to adverse shocks, some workers search for new industries while others are rest unemployed, waiting for their industry's condition to improve. We obtain closed‐form expressions for key aggregate variables and use them to evaluate the model's quantitative predictions for unemployment and wages. Both search and rest unemployment are important for understanding the behavior of wages at the industry level.     

Standard of Living as a Right,Not a Privilege: Is It Time to Change the Dialogue from Minimum Wage to Living Wage?

Dating back to the 1930s, President Franklin D. Roosevelt argued that workers were entitled to a wage that allowed them to enjoy a decent standard of living—a conviction that led the president to propose the first federally‐mandated minimum wage. Mr. Roosevelt’s proposal was met with highly partisan resistance in congress and the courts—reactions not different in kind from the highly partisan resistance former President Obama experienced in his proposal to increase the federal minimum wage from its current level of $7.25 per hour. Reflecting President Roosevelt’s convictions, it is clear that many low wage workers today are not, and cannot, enjoying a decent standard of living at current minimum wage levels. Further, many of the economic arguments raised in opposition to increasing the minimum wage have been thoroughly discredited: empirical evidence suggests that increased minimum wages would not lead to dramatic spikes in unemployment, massive substitutions of capital for labor, business closings, and significantly increased consumer prices. However, as compelling as arguments for increasing the minimum wage may be, the reality is that this may not be sufficient to alleviate the plight of low income workers, particularly given the political nature of minimum wage adjustments. Indeed, it may be time to shift the national focus away from the minimum wage to an emphasis on viable living wage legislation, a proposition consistent with the social justice perspective of contemporary ethicists.     

Do Immigrants Compete with Natives?

The paper analyses the impact of foreign workers on the Italian labour market. We address the issue of whether immigrants from less developed countries are complementary or substitutes to domestic workers. We construct a data set on immigrant workers from the Administrative Social Security Archive which starts in 1986, before the general amnesty of 1990–91, when a large share of illegal immigrants were granted working permits, and end in 1995. A two-stage procedure devised by Moulton is applied to yearly cross-sections of wages by industry and region. Our results show that the inflow of immigrants raises the wages of native manual workers (i.e. it has a complementary effect), and this effect is larger in small firms and in the north of the country. We postulate that the positive impact on native wages is due to the existence of labour constraints on the side of firms. Firms are unable to expand their output because they cannot find native workers who are willing to undertake certain (typically low-skilled) jobs. Immigrants help to fill this gap. This view is reinforced by the fact that over a ‘crucial threshold’ of the share of foreign work (7.7–12 percent) additional inflows in the labour market of foreign work have a negative effect on native wages (i.e. they compete with natives).     

平台模式下农民合作社与供应链协调研究——以农户主导视角

针对众创平台模式下农民专业合作社与供应链协调问题。在农地流转背景下提出了一种农户主导供应链的多阶段斯坦科尔伯格博弈模型,设计了一种集中决策模式和四种分散决策模式,考虑了风险传递、决策优先权、边际成本和风险成本问题,构建了农场主、合作社、小农户和平台以农户数量（或合作比例）、土地流转收益、增产率和期望销售目标等共同影响的利润最大化模型,得到了最优土地流转收益和最大化利润所满足的方程;发现农户数量（或合作比例）、收益分配率、销售目标等因素都会对最优解产生影响。通过数值模拟,发现农场主（或合作社）优先权可以提高农场主（或合作社）利润;在一定条件下,合作社模式可以实现供应链协调;在农场主（或合作社）模式中平台和小农户利润通常是较低的;在供应链协调和小农户利润不降低的前提下,可以通过有效途径对平台利润差额进行补偿以保证合作社模式持续均衡。