The Throes and Relief of Divorce

A divorce is a series of victories and losses. Everyone's lives get better if a marriage eroded by painful disagreements is dissolved. Usually, both spouses go through purgatory with various trials along their divorce. The aim of this article is to analyze what kinds of feelings a divorce excites as described by divorcees (N?=?74). What emotions do the divorcees emphasize in their divorce experience? The data were collected in the form of informal letters, in which people (71 women, 3 men) could reveal their thoughts and experiences in an open manner. The data were analyzed by content analysis and the results showed that a divorce produces emotional baggage with plenty of insecurity and uncertainty, but provides promises, challenges, and options as well. Although a divorce is a difficult experience, it cannot be blamed as such. Often after a torturous marriage, divorce is the only reasonable solution.     

Divorce Insurance: Mitigating the Adjudication Period Financial Crisis

Divorce can subject both parties in a troubled marriage to one of the most emotionally and financially trying periods they will experience in their life. Much attention has been given toward life after divorce—either the decisions such as custody of children that will influence this, or the changed circumstances that both parties will find themselves facing. Yet the period from filing to final grant of a divorce poses additional challenges on top of the emotional uncertainties suffered during this period. Total household expenses might double or triple as a result of spouses seeking separate residences, legal bills, added travel, and other expenses forced by a divorce. At the same time, disruptions in one's personal life due to a divorce can disrupt job performance, and in certain situations, even make it difficult or impossible to work; household income can drop accordingly. This article proposes a workable insurance solution to alleviate this second lesser known challenge that a changed financial situation imposes on couples during the divorce adjudication period.     

Marital separation and stress

The focus of this article is on the disruptive potential of divorce. Stress experiences in two life-span samples were compared. The first sample included persons who had recently separated from their spouses, while the second included persons in the midst of such normative transitions as marriage, having a first child, departure of children from the family home, and retirement. The men and women in the divorce sample not only reported more negative life experiences in the recent past but also reported more positive experiences as well. The results support previous suggestions in the literature that divorce has within it the potential for growth as well as decrement.     

The Decision to Divorce

The decision to terminate an unhappy marriage through obtaining a divorce is almost never an easy decision for either spouse. It is usually reached only after other options and alternatives have been considered and then rejected as non-viable solutions to the problems that have developed between the spouses. As Bernard (1970: 3) has noted, despite the increasing frequency of its occurence, "It is not likely that divorce will ever become matterof- fact, nor that it will ever become painless or casual or nonchalant . . . It will probably always be an extremely painful experience for most people, as breaking close ties always is, even outside marriage." From this perspective, our coming to terms with divorce means only that we recognize its inevitability in many cases and try to mitigate some of the worst of its consequences. In this paper we review the process through which a sample of 500 respondents reached the decision to obtain a divorce. Specifically, major problems that existed in their relationship that prompted them to finally seek a legal termination of their union will be considered. In addition, we will examine barriers that had to be overcome before that decision was finally reached as well as major sources of social support that encouraged the decision. We will begin with a brief theoretical review of the major orientations that have been developed in the literature to account for the process through which the individual ultimately decides to seek a divorce.     

Marriage contracts and the law-and-economics of marriage: an Austrian perspective

Marriages and firms share many characteristics in common. Both institutions deal with a set of promises between two parties and therefore need contracts to encourage individual parties to stand by their promises and commitments. Despite these similarities, in most countries marriage laws are statutory laws that have little in common with commercial contract laws. We present the Chicago and neoclassical perspectives on law-and-economics, with a special emphasis on marriage laws. According to this framework, it is possible to explain the way traditional marriage laws have regulated exchanges between spouses and spouses in Western countries such as France, when these countries were patriarchal societies. We also consider the case of egalitarian marriage and show some of the limitations of any statutory marriage laws. We then present a critical perspective on the law-and-economics literature on marriage. Our critique is based on the economic literature by Austrian economists and by public choice theorists. We emphasize the knowledge problem, the problem of interest, and the problems associated with government monopoly in coercion. Our concluding section presents some suggestions regarding a legal system inspired from international commercial contract law. By not giving any particular government a monopoly on the power to enforce marriage contracts such system would avoid some of the problems found in the systems of statutory laws currently regulating marriage and divorce in the Western world.     

Got Trust? A Mixed-Method Consideration of How Past Relationships Influence Perceptions of Trust

Although trust is an integral part of marriage, there is comparatively little research detailing how it develops between spouses. How trust develops and is maintained might differ between first and second marriages. This study used qualitative and quantitative reports from individuals in a first marriage (n = 353) or second marriage following divorce (n = 163) to examine how past relationships influenced current trust. Qualitative results provided evidence for how trust processes were developed in remarried versus first-married individuals. Quantitative analyses were used to validate these results. Clinical implications are provided to help clinicians address issues related to trust between spouses.     

An Evaluation of the "Recovery of Hope" Program

The Recovery of Hope program was initiated in 1981 to address the problem of couples entering marriage enrichment events whose distress levels indicated a need for therapy rather than enrichment. An ex post facto evaluation was conducted for this divorce prevention program, surveying 190 spouses who had been involved in the program prior to October 1984. Returns were obtained from 34 wives and 27 husbands on post-test and retrospective pre-test marital satisfaction measures, along with a variety of other items and demographic data. Program completion appeared to assist couples in either improving their rclationship or in deciding to divorce, as opposed to continuing with an unsatisfactory marital relationship.     

The Parental Divorce Transition:

The Double ABC-X Model of family stress was used to develop a theoretical model of the parental divorce transition. Interview data from 125 former spouses with children were analyzed to investigate the relationship between divorce-related stressors and post divorce well-being. Divorce-related stressors included economic, housing, legal, parent-child, and former spouse components. Well-being included self-esteem, parenting satisfaction, and economic well-being. Using multivariate regression the results indicated that parents' divorce transition was characterized by major role shifts. For custodial mothers, economic well-being correlated negatively with legal stressors. Other significant independent variables were income during marriage, employment, education, number of children, and her remarriage. For noncustodial fathers, parenting satisfaction was correlated negatively with legal and parent-child stressors.     

Is Your Spouse More Likely to Divorce You if You Are the Older Partner?

The authors assessed how the relative age of spouses affects whether men or women initiate a divorce, using data from the National Survey of Families and Households. Ex‐spouses' reports of who left generally agreed, but not always, so the analysis used a latent class model embedded in an event‐history model with competing risks that the woman leaves the man or the man leaves the woman. Support was not found for the hypothesis that age heterogamy itself increases the odds of divorce: Even large age differences did not make men more likely to leave younger wives, and women's exits were as likely when the marriage is homogamous as when she was older. The main conclusion is that both men and women are more likely to leave if their spouse is older than they are. The effects were stronger for men, but the gender difference in effect size was not statistically significant.     

An Examination of Ever-Divorced Women Who Attempted a Marital Reconciliation Before Becoming Divorced

Using 1987-88 National Survey of Families and Household data, this study provides some insight as to the prevalence and characteristics of ever-divorced white women who attempted a marital reconciliation before becoming divorced. In about 30% of the first marriages that end in divorce in the United States, a period of separation and reconciliation has preceded the woman's divorce. Using multivariate analysis, we find that age at first separation and duration between marriage and first separation have a significant negative relationship with attempting a reconciliation before becoming divorced. Education and age homogamy between the spouses are also significantly related to attempting a reconciliation. The implications of these results are discussed.     

The Timing of Divorce: Predicting When a Couple Will Divorce Over a 14‐Year Period

This paper investigates the predictability of divorce in a long‐term, prospective longitudinal study. Past research has indicated that 2 periods can be considered the most critical for the survival of marriages: (a) the first 7 years of marriage, during which half of all divorces are known to occur, and (b) the period during which the first child reaches 14 years of age, which has been suggested as a low point for marital satisfaction in the life course. In the present study, interaction variables at Time 1 (both during conflict and in an events‐of‐the‐day discussion following separation of the spouses for at least 8 hours) and noninteractive variables were used to predict divorcing both early and later in the marriage. A different set of variables predicted early divorcing than predicted later divorcing. Negative affect during conflict predicted early divorcing, but it did not predict later divorcing. By contrast, the lack of positive affect in events‐of‐the‐day and conflict discussions predicted later divorcing, but it did not predict early divorcing. Prediction was possible over the 14‐year period of the study with a model that included marital satisfaction, thoughts of marital dissolution, and affective interaction in both conversations. The model predicted divorce with 93% accuracy.     

Family Ties and the Discontinuity of Divorce in Black and White Newlywed Couples

This paper explores the relationship of family ties to the marital happiness of husbands and wives from intact and disrupted families of origin and to the likelihood that they will divorce by the 4th year of their marriage. Respondents were 199 Black and 173 White couples interviewed as part of the “Early Years of Marriage” study. Analyses showed differences in family connectedness according to whether the family of origin was disrupted, and some variations by race were also evident. Regression analyses revealed that among all spouses, but especially among wives from divorced families, increased closeness to their husbands' families predicted increased happiness in their marriages. Hazard models showed that when husbands' or wives' parents were divorced or separated, couples' closeness to the husbands' family reduced their risk of divorce. Findings are discussed in the context of family systems theory and gender roles related to the forging of links with kin networks.     

“It Is Not a Big Deal,I Can Do It,Too”: Influence of Parental Divorce on Professional Women's Marital Experience in Turkey

This article reports on a study of how parental divorce affects the marriage and divorce experiences of professional women in Turkey. Drawing on the retrospective accounts of eight professional women in relation to their own divorce and those of their parents, this study highlights the role of parental divorce and cultural context in adult children's attitudes, beliefs, and experiences regarding their own union formation. Based on this small qualitative sample, results demonstrate that parental divorce affected women's entire lives, with considerable impact on their commitment to marriage and view of divorce in general. They learn from their parents that marriages can be broken when they do not function properly. As a result, instead of being more patient or self- sacrificing, as is frequently advised to women in Turkish society, the women in this study readily tended toward divorce as a viable solution to marital problems.     

A Family Matter

Abstract

The 2004 debate over civil marriage for same-gender couples highlights issues faced by mixed-orientation couples after one of the spouses comes out as gay, lesbian, or bisexual. The disclosure becomes a family matter as their spouses and children cope with the new information and antigay attitudes. The majority of couples divorce. A minority stays married for three years or more by developing strategies that enhance the relationship, offset outside pressures, and sustain the family circle. Peers provide the most support, while therapists are often unfamiliar with sexual orientation, mixed orientation couples, or societal attitudes that impact families with a gay, lesbian, or bisexual parent. This article provides that information so that professionals can help these couples improve the quality of their lives and develop skills to create a future in which homosexuality, same-gender relationships, and gay parenting are more widely accepted and legalized. This development would decrease the number of mixed-orientation marriages with closeted spouses and increase the potential for both types of families to form lasting marriages and strong family units.     

Gender and marital satisfaction early in marriage: A growth curve approach

The purpose of this study is to assess differences between husbands and wives (N= 526 couples at the first assessment) on (a) growth curves over the first 4 years of marriage for psychological distress, marriage‐specific appraisals, spousal interactions, social support, and marital satisfaction; (b) the strength of intraspouse links and cross‐spouse links involving the initial assessment of the first four variables and the growth curve for marital satisfaction; and (c) differences between spouses headed for divorce versus spouses in stable marriages on the growth curves for all five variables. On the basis of evidence that interspouse differences were largely nonsignificant, there was little support for the view that there are his and her versions of the processes that affect marital outcomes.     

Das polnische Familienrecht im Reformprozeß der staatlichen Ordnung

In view of the political reform in Poland, the ratification of international conventions and Poland’s intention of joining the European Union, a revision of both civil law and family law, which has been codified separately hitherto, is required. The author analyses the proposals made by the commission for the codification of the civil law and presents further possibilities for a solution.As far as the family law reform is concerned, optional civil marriage has been introduced. The same law lays down that a marriage is void in the case of an error regarding the partner and the event that the marriage was concluded under threat. Whereas the principle of irretrievable marriage breakdown remains unchanged, the introduction of divorce on request of one partner without judicial control has been refused. Furthermore, the legal separation is to be introduced.According to the author, the main emphasis of the reformatory efforts is being placed on the matrimonial property law. He reports on the commission’s proposal on the introduction of the community of surplus as a new matrimonial property regime, the introduction of a matrimonial property register and the extension of the spouses’ rights to settle their marital property rights by contract.With regard to the parent and child law the author analyses the impications of new assisted reproduction technologies for the right to challenge paternity and questions of maintenance.Finally the author refers to the status of the child in the new constitution and points out the necessity of hearing the children in the course of divorce proceedings.     

Parental Marital Status and Young Adult Offspring's Attitudes About Marriage and Divorce

This study examined attitudes toward marriage and divorce among single young adults. Data were gathered from 310 traditional-aged college students regarding their perceived level of commitment to a future marriage and their likelihood to divorce should such a marriage become unsatisfying. Study results indicated that individuals who have experienced parental divorce reported lower levels of marital commitment and more prodivorce attitudes than their peers from intact families. These results suggest that attitudes toward marriage and divorce are partially preformulated beliefs individuals carry into their relationships. Implications for professionals working with young adults are discussed, along with directions for future research.     

Patterns of Change in Marital Satisfaction Over the Newlywed Years

Although marital satisfaction starts high and declines for the average newlywed, some spouses may follow qualitatively distinct trajectories. Using eight self-reports of satisfaction collected over 4 years from 464 newlywed spouses, we identified five trajectory groups, including patterns defined by high intercepts and no declines in satisfaction, moderate intercepts and minimal declines, and low intercepts and substantial declines. The groups varied systematically in their 4- and 10-year divorce rates, and wives tended to follow more satisfying trajectories than their husbands. Personality traits, stress, aggression, and communication behaviors assessed shortly after marriage discriminated among groups in expected directions. We conclude by outlining theoretical and practical implications of identifying distinct and predictable patterns of change in relationship satisfaction.     

Remarriage after divorce: recent changes and demographic variations

Using data from US Bureau of the Census publications from the decennial censuses and the Bureau's Current Population Reports, the authors analyze remarriage in the US. Among adults who had ended their 1st marriage in divorce, about 3/4 of the elderly men and 2/3 of the elderly women in both 1970 and 1980 were found to be remarried. However, the general decline in remarriage at the younger ages during the 1970s was accentuated among those under 35 years old. Although the proportion remarried among women with graduate school training was the smallest, that proportion declined less during the 1970s than for women in any other educational level. In both 1970 and 1980, the proportion remarried was positively correlated with personal income for men but negatively for women. An estimated 2/3 of those who end their 1st marriage in divorce will eventually remarry while they have young children living with them. During the lifetime of women in their 2nd marriage after their 1st marriage ended in divorce, only 1/3 of their children are born after remarriage, whereas 2/3 are born before their 2nd marriages. During the 1970s, the proportion of currently divorced adults living alone or sharing the homes of relatives diminished, while the proportion living as cohabitants outside marriage rose substantially. It appears as if both the divorce rate and the remarriage rate are approaching a period of relative stability.     

An Exploratory Analysis of the Construct of Leavers versus Left as It Relates to Levinger's Social Exchange Theory of Attractions,Barriers, and Alternative Attractions

This study analyzed the construct of "leavers" versus "left" as it relates to Levinger's factors of attractions, barriers, and alternative attractions. Individuals who perceive themselves as the "leaver" were more positive in their attitudes toward divorce than the "left." Females were also more positive in their attitude toward divorce than were males. Although "leavers" and "left" did not differ in attractions to the marriage or in the number of barriers to divorce, leavers were willing to identify a greater number of attractive alternatives to the marriage. Furthermore, individuals having a more positive attitude toward divorce were more likely to identify fewer attractions to the marriage and a greater number of attractive alternatives to the marriage. There was no relationship between an individual's attitude toward divorce and the number of barriers he/she was willing to identify. Of the variables studied, "attractive alternatives" to the marriage was consistently identified as most significant.