Public nudity on cell phones: Managing conflict in crisis situations

Analyzing news coverage to recount a fast-moving, dramatic marketing PR incident that occurred in South Korea, the contingency theory of conflict management and crisis management strategies are integrated to examine how crisis is communicated and managed in a very short period of time. Several types of strategies were utilized by contending parties through the various stages of the crisis life cycle. We found evidence for a new contingent variable that should be added in the matrix of contingent factors--the importance of Internet community and Netizens as organized and influential public. Netizens played an important role throughout the crisis period in changing the organization's stance from advocacy to accommodation.     

Going head to head: Content analysis of high profile conflicts as played out in the press

Content analyses of news coverage for high profile conflicts (the U.S. Department of Agriculture, American Airlines, Massachusetts Military Reservation, United Parcel Service) provide a natural history of the use of the contingency theory in public relations. The content analysis tracked the changing stances of organizations moving on the continuum from pure advocacy to pure accommodation, in response to a number of contingent factors that can just as readily move an organization toward accommodation as toward advocacy. Integrating conflict and conflict resolution models from the conflict literature with the contingency theory in public relations, results confirm that strategies as well as stances of an organization and its public change over time. This change over time has been influenced predominantly by two contingent factors: internal threats and external threats. Both parties in each conflict demonstrated overall advocacy and employed a contending strategy predominantly during the conflict management process.     

Contingent factors: Modeling generic public relations practice in South Korea

This study identified which contingent variables public relations practitioners perceive as influential to their practice in South Korea. They responded that a number of contingent variables influence public relations activities and emphasized the influence of individual and organizational level variables on their practice. Practitioners at the management level perceived organizational level variables as influential while the staff level indicated PR department variables as dominant to their practice. Public relations practitioners whose main function is government relations tended to acknowledge a greater influence of organizational level variables. Most notably, public relations practitioners cited the constraints of negative information release and conflict situations.     

Moral conflict and dynamic equilibrium: Public relations as strategic conflict management

In the literature review and proposed theoretical models, the author argues that we often engage in advocacy in public relations on behalf of causes we hold dear, much like a strong defender on a soccer field becomes physical in defending the goal without violating explicit rules or our sense of what is right and appropriate in a competitive world. The author presents this image of an athlete contending in fair competition as a metaphor for a rejection of canonized thinking about accommodation in public relations in favor of public relations as strategic conflict management. This research is offered to continue the discussion in the field of public relations from the contingency theory of strategic conflict management and consider the ethical challenges faced by public relations practitioners in an ongoing cycle of conflict. This article is included in the special issue on the contingency theory of strategic conflict management.     

Identifying key influencers of Chinese PR practitioners’ strategic conflict management practice: A survey on contingent variables in Chinese context

As the first quantitative test of contingency theory in China using an online survey, this study examined the influence of each of the over 80 individual contingent variables as perceived by Chinese public relations practitioners. Individual characteristics as related to conflict management as well as political–social factors were identified as the most influential variables. By forming influential contingent factors and exploring the dimensionality of these factors using factor analysis, the results of this study suggested structural stability of the contingency matrix. Further, the effects of gender and types of organizations were tested on how Chinese practitioners perceive these influences in their public relations practice. The findings provide insights for both practitioners and researchers on how to strategically identify and combine the most influential factors in effective and ethical conflict management in China.     

Determinants of consistent,timely, and active responses in corporate crises

This paper investigates the individual and combined factors affecting the extent to which corporations respond to crisis events consistently, in a timely manner, and actively. The determinants examined include public relations autonomy, legal dominance, strategic orientation, and organizational factors. A survey was conducted of communications mangers, public affairs personnel, and public relations personnel, drawn from the top 500 companies operating in Taiwan. Results indicate that the relative effect of individual sources of influence on crisis response is greatest for situations in which public relations departments have the most autonomy, followed by those where crisis management is handled with a strategic orientation, those where the legal departments dominate, and those where organizational factors provide the main avenue of address. The results emphasize the intriguing role of public relations autonomy by demonstrating its significant impact on providing a consistent, timely, and active crisis response. The strategic orientation of situation analysis also predicts a consistent response, whereas legal dominance predicts strategic ambiguity or inconsistent communication.     

Collaboration and conflict between agencies and clients

Public relations agencies are an important part of the public relations industry, but their relations with client organizations are rarely studied. There is more literature and studies in agency-client relations in advertising than in public relations. This paper reviews literature and reports results of an empirical study into perceptions of public relations agencies and their clients on the reasons for their cooperation and sources of conflict between them. Results show that agencies misperceive reasons for which they are hired and the sources of conflict in the relationship. The paper offers several suggestions about how to tackle the problem: notwithstanding rebranding into consultancies and firms, public relations agencies-client relations should be studied as a particular example of a broader family of agency-client relations. Also agencies should study and strategically manage relations with their clients, while being realistic about client organization’s needs – sometimes they just need additional arms and legs.     

Strategic communication of hope and anger: A case of Duke University's conflict management with multiple publics

This study analyzes, from a conflict perspective, 139 conflict-focused newspaper stories about the 2006 Duke University lacrosse team crisis case. Findings show that media coverage emphasized the University's expression of hope, while highlighting the various publics’ expressions of anger. Duke University employed concession as its primary litigation strategy and adjustment as its primary conflict strategy to communicate with multiple publics. Duke's conflict stances were more accommodative toward internal publics than they were toward external publics.     

Trust and Relational Commitment in Corporate Crises: The Effects of Crisis Communicative Strategy and Form of Crisis Response

The purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which crisis communicative strategy and form of crisis response affect trust and relational commitment with respect to crisis contexts at the firm level, after controlling the effects of crisis type and organizational association. A survey of communication managers, crisis managers, and public relations and/or public affairs managers from Taiwan's top 500 companies was conducted. The results showed that in crisis managers' assessment, the form of crisis response (timely response, consistent response, and active response) is more powerful than crisis communicative strategies (denial, diversion, excuse, justification and concession) in predicting trust and relational commitment. Moreover, the result, on one hand, supports the robustness of concession as an effective communicative strategy above and beyond the impacts from crisis type and organization association. On the other hand, however, it challenges this traditional wisdom involving concession by emphasizing the intriguing mediating role of form of crisis response by demonstrating that form of crisis response is necessary for more concession communicative response to generate more favorable relational outcomes.     

网络危机公关探析

网络危机公关是指对由网络虚拟世界里形成的网络危机事件所引发的、对现实世界产生实际影响的公关危机(网络公关危机)的预防、识别和处理。通过对网络危机事件、网络公关危机和网络危机公关的分析,探讨了网络公关危机管理之道。     

Hierarchical consistency of strategies in image repair theory: PR practitioners’ perceptions of effective and preferred crisis communication strategies

ABSTRACT

Drawing from image repair theory and situational crisis communication theory, this study advances crisis communication theory by analyzing nearly 800 public relations professionals’ perceptions of 15 image repair strategies. A national sample of US public relations professionals evaluated communication strategies for their effectiveness and preference for use in three crisis scenarios (accidents, product safety, and illegal activity). Compensation, corrective action, and mortification were the most highly ranked crisis response strategies, regardless of attribution of organizational responsibility or culpability, across 3 different types of accidental and preventable crises. This hierarchical consistency suggests that using communication strategies for maintaining and strengthening an organization’s relationships with its publics may be the best protection for sustaining and repairing positive reputation long-term.     

Tuning in to the rhythm: The role of coping in strategic management of work-life conflicts in the public relations profession

How public relations practitioners cope with work-life conflict was studied through a national survey of a random sample of PRSA (Public Relations Society of America) members. These active practitioners reported strong preferences in using more proactive conflict coping strategies, such as rational action and positive thinking. Women and those with a graduate degree tend to report more coping behaviors than others. Three types of stressors are identified as sources of work-life conflict: behavior-driven, work-driven, and life-driven.     

Occam's Razor in the contingency theory: A national survey on 86 contingent variables

The purpose of this study is to quantify 86 contingent variables and modify the construct of the contingency theory. A nationwide survey among public relations practitioners first enabled quantitative analysis of the 86 contingent variables affecting public relations practice, divided into 12 factors on two dimensions. This test gave parsimony to the matrix of 86 contingent variables initially offered in the matrix, provided validity to the contingency theory, and suggested its theoretical evolution measured against Occam's Razor, which holds that the simplest explanation is generally the most precise and thus the best approach to follow in building theories.     

Getting ready for crises: Strategic excellence

Results of a national survey indicate that organizations are better prepared by having a crisis plan and a crisis management team in place. However, crisis personnel often receive little individual, team, and media training for effective crisis response. Excellent communication culture positively relates to crisis preparations with respect to having a crisis plan, maintaining a crisis team, formulating comprehensive training programs, and engaging in training frequently. Excellence also predicts whether or not public relations professionals are included in a crisis management team.     

Congressional controversy over the federal Prohibition Bureau's public relations, 1922

Prohibition went into effect in early 1919, with the ratification of the 18th amendment to the Constitution. Yet, its adoption did not end the controversy. For ‘drys’ and ‘wets’ in Congress, conflict over the Prohibition Bureau's public relations became a proxy for the ongoing battle over prohibition itself. This is an historical summary of the 1922 battle over the appropriateness of that agency's public relations.     

The Effects of Corrective Communication and Employee Backup on the Effectiveness of Fighting Crisis Misinformation

Crisis misinformation, including false information about a crisis or a crisis-stricken organization, has become a fundamental threat to organizational wellbeing. Effective crisis response geared toward fighting crisis misinformation demands a more systematic approach to corrective communication. Grounded in misinformation debunking theory, this study aims to advance misinformation research in public relations and organizational crisis communication. An online experiment using a U.S. adult sample (N = 817) was conducted to examine the effects of corrective communication strategy (simple rebuttal vs. factual elaboration) and employee backup (present vs. absent) on perceived message quality, organizational reputation, and perceived crisis responsibility. Results show: 1) the use of factual elaboration and the presence of employee backup were direct contributors to crisis response effectiveness; and 2) perceived message quality mediates the effect of corrective communication. This study provides insights into advancing crisis communication theory and offers evidence-based recommendations for practitioners to combat crisis misinformation more effectively.     

Image repair in late night comedy: Letterman and the Palin joke controversy

David Letterman, host of The Late Show, told a joke about Sarah Palin's daughter during one of his nightly monologues. During the ensuing controversy, Letterman offered two extended statements about the joke. Approaching Letterman's responses from the perspective of Benoit's image repair typology reveals three primary strategies: denial, mortification, and corrective action. While Letterman's first attempt to resolve the controversy failed, his second attempt was largely successful. Implications for public relations image repair strategies are offered.     

Economics and public relations in a time of downturn: Dismal science,unseen history,and the need for dialogue

The major originating event of this special section was the ongoing crisis that continues to cast a shadow of financial depression across the globe and has led to calls for a radical rethink of economics. In this introduction we attempt to contextualize the special section's theme and articles with a view to sparking a deeper and longer dialogue – one that emphasizes the potential for positive disciplinary exchanges – between economics and public relations. As fields, they have been respectively characterized as the dismal science and the unseen history. In order to avoid such offspring as a dismal history of economics and an unseen science of public relations, we argue that the two need both to learn from, and to appreciate, each other. In the meantime, there is another crisis stalking public relations, and it is the possibility that the recent poor history of economics might be the imminent future of public relations.     

Crisis communicative strategies in Taiwan: Category,continuum, and cultural implication

The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to investigate crisis communicative strategies (CCSs) in a Chinese context, and (2) to develop a model integrating the measures, categories, and continuum of CCS. A survey of public relations and public affairs managers from Taiwan's top-500 companies was undertaken to examine actual experiences of handling crises. The results showed that five crisis communicative strategies emerged from the factor analysis, i.e., denial, diversion, excuse, justification, and concession. The cultural implication of the new factor, i.e., diversion, accordant with the theme of strategic ambiguity in the business literature, is explored. Moreover, this paper suggested placing the five CCSs in a two-continuum matrix, i.e., defense-accommodation and specification-ambiguity. The paper concludes with a discussion of practical applications, theoretical contribution, and cultural implications of the results.