Perception and determination of child maltreatment: Exploratory comparisons across three countries

Objective

Little is known about perception and determination of child maltreatment across countries. Although differences in perception and determination of maltreatment across regions of a single country are well documented, comparative knowledge across countries remains sparse. This internet survey examined perception of abusive behaviors and factors considered important in determining maltreatment in three countries (i.e., the United States, Ghana, and Nigeria).

Method

Forty-five abusive behaviors comprising physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, child neglect, and child labor, as well as 13 factors considered important in determining maltreatment, were examined among a convenience sample of 327 respondents in the United States, Ghana, and Nigeria. Respondents were recruited within and outside universities in the three countries and links to the survey were sent to respondents who are nonstudents.

Results

With all the countries combined, consensus was high for 15 of the 45 abusive behaviors, although levels of consensus and perceptions varied by country and race. Consensus was high for all of the abusive behaviors among respondents in the United States, 36 of the abusive behaviors among respondents in Ghana, and none of the abusive behaviors among respondents in Nigeria. Respondents who are White/Caucasian were significantly more likely to perceive 5 of the behaviors as abuse than respondents who are Black/non-Caucasian. Similarly, factors considered important in determining maltreatment differed by country and race. Respondents in the United States and Ghana were more likely to consider 9 of the 13 factors important in determining maltreatment compared to respondents in Nigeria. Also, Caucasians/Whites were more likely to consider 6 of the 13 factors important in determining maltreatment compared to Blacks/non-Caucasians.

Conclusion

Despite racial and regional differences, there are indications that cross-cultural consensus on perception and determination of abusive behaviors is possible. Understanding differences in socio-cultural experiences may help bridge the current gaps in cross-cultural consensus on perception and determination of abusive behaviors.     

Breaking the intergenerational transmission of child abuse: Beyond the mother-child relationship

Studies comparing abusive and non-abusive parents who were abused as children are reviewed to determine protective factors that may lead to a break in the transmission pattern. Non-abusers have several factors in common. For instance: they have extensive emotional and social support from significant others. they are aware of what happened to them as children and are openly angry about their abuse. and many of them received (psycho)therapy as adolescents or young adults. Discovering protective factors by which some parents overcome a family pattern of abuse is valuable in guiding both prevention and intervention efforts. A brief discussion of the influence of methodological variations of different studies on reported transmission rates precedes the review. Furthermore. attention is given to the underrepresentation of (abusive) fathers in theory as well as in research on child abuse. The effects of undervaluation of gender differences are discussed in terms of their importance in the occurrence and (breaks in the) transmission of child abuse.     

Propensity to perpetrate abusive behaviors: Internet survey of the role of gender,childhood maltreatment,and perception of maltreatment in Nigeria

This article reports on propensity to perpetrate abusive behaviors and examines the role of gender, childhood maltreatment, and perception of abusive behaviors on the propensity. Findings suggest that propensity to perpetrate abusive behaviors cuts across all types of maltreatment (i.e., physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, child neglect, and child labor). Although abusive behavior with high propensity for perpetration includes corporal punishment, propensity to perpetrate abusive behaviors differed by gender. Men were more likely than women to indicate propensity to perpetrate abusive behaviors. Those who perceived behaviors as not abusive, as well as those who reported childhood experience of abusive behaviors, were more likely to intend to perpetrate abusive behaviors. Although childhood experience of sexual abuse was related to perpetration of sexual abuse, history of perpetrating sexual abuse comprised the largest effect size of the propensities to perpetrate abusive behaviors. Implications of findings for policy, practice, and services are discussed.     

Elder Abuse: Feminist and Ageist Perspectives

ABSTRACT

Elder abuse research reports little consensus regarding gender and age. This project examined 99 incidents of elder abuse by an adult child and 86 incidents of elder abuse by a spouse, and compared the groups using the variables: gender, age, and incidents. The results are discussed from a feminist and age perspective. Differences between the groups were found, namely that elder abuse by an adult child is most likely to be financial abuse. Traditional ideas about women and men, as well as ideas about the nature of the old were found to be factors in elder abusive relationships.     

Interdisciplinary Insights on Nonverbal Responses within Attachment Relationships

As an extension of the thinking of Schachner, Shaver, and Mikulincer [2005, Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29], it is suggested that other disciplines (e.g., evolutionary psychology, social neuroscience) provide guidance with respect to factors that may influence nonverbal behavior within attachment relationships. An integration of biological and cognitive approaches provides a more complete understanding of the routes through which, and the extent to which, there is continuity between attachment processes in parent–child and adult relationships. As a specific illustration drawn from parent–child relationships, consideration is given to the cognitive biases more common among depressed or abusive mothers, and the resultant consequences for insecure attachment—as mediated by physiological stress responses and the ineffective communication processes that follow from those responses.     

Double jeopardy: Child maltreatment and mental retardation

The multiple associations between child abuse and neglect and mental retardation are reviewed. These include: (1) mental retardation as an etiological risk factor for child maltreatment; (2) mental retardation as a result of child maltreatment; and (3) mental retardation of a parent as an etiological risk factor for a child's maltreatment. Implications and recommendations for social work practice and research are discussed.     

Trauma and Adolescents Who Engage in Sexually Abusive Behavior: A Review of the Literature

ABSTRACT

While recent research has established the abuse and victimization histories of youth who engage in sexually abusive behavior, there is still debate regarding the significance of trauma and abuse as developmental antecedents to sexual offending in adolescence. Moreover, research has not conclusively identified the types, context, and timing of adverse experiences that act as catalysts for subsequent sexual perpetration. The present comprehensive literature review has one primary aim: Explore the adverse childhood experiences of youth who engage in sexually abusive behavior, considering whether trauma may be a consistent developmental antecedent to offending. Search method, inclusion criteria, and screening protocol are described, and the articles included in the review (N = 13) are qualitatively analyzed using thematic coding. Findings indicate that traumatic experiences and symptoms may be of developmental and etiological significance for subsequent sexually abusive behavior in adolescence. Implications for research, treatment, and policy are discussed, with the hope the findings will act as impetus to develop and deliver targeted treatment and prevention programs to sexually abusive youth who have histories of victimization.     

Perceptions of Abusive Parenting Behaviors: A Preliminary Exploration Into the Underrecognition of Mother–Daughter Sexual Abuse

ABSTRACT

The current study examined the influence of the sex of the parent and the sex of the child on perceptions of sexually abusive behaviors. Vignettes illustrating different forms of sexual abuse were rated by 124 participants, with the different parent–child pairs (mother–daughter, mother–son, father–daughter, father–son) substituted into the vignettes being the only difference between groups. Two-way between subjects ANOVAs revealed that sexually abusive behaviors by mothers were perceived as less damaging to child victims (F (1, 120 = 7.56, p < .01) than the same sexually abusive behaviors committed by fathers. In addition, sexually abusive behaviors by mothers toward daughters were perceived as the least abusive (F (1, 120 = 16.30, p < .001) and the least criminal (F (1, 120 = 4.44, p < .05) as compared to the other three groups. Results suggest that perceptions of sexual abuse may be influenced by perceptions of sex and gender.     

The Success of the Battered Woman Syndrome: An Analysis of How Cultural Arguments Succeed

This paper examines how certain cultural arguments gain the authority necessary to explain the social problem of domestic violence. I begin by demonstrating the existence of competing explanations for the question of why abusive relationships continue. I find that a certain kind of explanation, multiple victimization arguments that emphasize the numerous ways battered women are victimized, are most common. Through an analysis of social science citations, news papers, and legislative and judicial decisions, I conclude that one multiple victimization argument in particular, Lenore Walker's battered woman syndrome (Walker, 1979, The Battered Woman. New York: Harper & Row; Walker, 1984, The Battered Woman Syndrome. New York: Springer), has become the most recognized explanation for why abusive relationships continue. The syndrome was best able to meet the criteria necessary for gaining cultural authority put forth by Schudson (1989, Theory and Society 18:153–180): retrievability, rhetorical force, resonance, resolution, and institutional retention. In recent years, however, this authority has been threatened as social and cultural conditions have changed, leaving competing understandings of the domestic violence issue to challenge Walker's claims.     

Ecologically defining the mistreatment of adolescents

Ecologically defined, the problem of adolescent/family conflict for otherwise “normal” families is a reaction to crisis in the life cycle of the family. A family's success in weathering the crisis is indicated by their successful maturation to the next stage of the cycle; we can assume that in such cases the ratio of stress to coping ability was such that the family could integrate that stress. When conflict escalates to abuse and neglect, however, the indication is that stress has outstripped coping ability, and the implication is for stress-reducing intervention quite unlike the standard existing interventions in either the juvenile justice or child welfare systems, which negatively label family members, make them adversaries, fragment their coping capabilities, and even subject them at times to situations worse than those for which they needed help originally. The interventions called for are those that support beleaguered families; that are based on conceptualizations of people as adaptable and capable of solving their own problems if they are given adequate supports.     

The social “R & D” paradigm in child and youth services: Building knowledge convivially

Adaptation of agricultural and industrial research and development models offers new methods for bridging the worlds of research and practice in child and youth services. Social R & D methodologies provide effective means for generating new social technologies because they are product oriented and use a wide array of traditional and nontraditional data sources. This article discusses one social R & D paradigm—Developmental Research and Utilization. Permanency planning and community support systems research are used to illustrate the past and potential application of this methodology to the field of child and youth services.     

Training Mental Health Professionals in Child Sexual Abuse: Curricular Guidelines

This study explored whether counseling practices with women survivors of child sexual abuse reflect the belief that women do not sexually abuse children. Canadian therapists (n?=?164) who work with women survivors of child sexual abuse were surveyed about their beliefs about what constitutes child sexual abuse, who commits child sexual abuse, and their practices regarding inquiries about abusive behavior. A majority self-reported that they ask women and think it is important to ask but most believe that clients will not spontaneously self-disclose inappropriate sexual thoughts or behaviors. How broadly or narrowly therapists defined child sexual abuse was not related to self-reported therapeutic discussion. Therapists demonstrated differential gender beliefs about child sexual abuse perpetration, but this did not relate to self-reported counseling practices. Implications for therapist education are discussed.     

Sexual risk behaviors among youth in the child welfare system

This study uses data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW) to provide estimates of sexual risk behaviors for 877 youth, age 11–14 at baseline, in the child welfare system. It examines the association between baseline psychosocial risk and protective factors on engagement in sexual risk behaviors after 36 months. It further compares rates of sexual risk behaviors between youth placed in out-of-home care and those who remained with their biological family. Key findings include a high rate of pregnancy, a high percentage of youth who initiated sexual activity at or before age 13 as well as a limited role of protective factors in moderating sexual risk behaviors. A history of placement into out-of-home care is not significantly associated with greater engagement in sexual risk behaviors. Implications for intervention development and child welfare policy for this population are discussed.     

Maternal inconsistent socialization: An interactional pattern with maltreated children

Most child abuse episodes take place in the context of child-rearing conflicts. Parents show a lack of competence in appropriately solving these conflicts, producing an escalating phenomenon which eventually ends in verbal and/or physical aggression towards the child. The main purpose of this study is to test the role of inconsistent socialization in the development of prolonged dyadic coercive exchanges. Observational information from 15 mother-child dyads referred for psychological treatment for abuse and 15 non-clinical dyads was obtained at home. Results show the mother's indiscriminate attention following prosocial child behaviour was significantly higher in abusive dyads, while disruptive child behaviour was followed by the mother's discriminate and consistent attention. These findings are discussed in terms of the context of uncertainty that maternal care sets for these children and how their aversive behaviour is functional in reducing uncertainty. Consequently, both mother and child are enmeshed in these dysfunctional ways of relating, which will affect the development of the child's psychological functioning. An analysis of family interaction to detect characteristic patterns of incompetence offers specific tools to treat and prevent child abuse.     

The organizational structure of child welfare: Staff are working hard,but it is hardly working

Child welfare has been overseen, litigated, reviewed, and chastised by those internal to the system and those who have never faced a traumatized child or an abusive parent. The work of child welfare occurs within organizations, generally large, public sector agencies. Literature has paid little attention to the organizational structure or staffing patterns of the agencies mandated to serve vulnerable children and families. This article explores the challenges facing child welfare and ponders the notion that the structure of public child welfare agencies has developed in response to internal and external factors. The resulting organizational structure may not be the best to support the myriad of mandates that child welfare must achieve.     

The "False Memory" DefenseUsing Disinformation and Junk Science In and Out of Court

This article describes a seemingly sophisticated, but mostly contrived and often erroneous “false memory” defense, and compares it in a brief review to what the science says about the effect of trauma on memory. Child sexual abuse is widespread and dissociative/traumatic amnesia for it is common. Accused, convicted and self-confessed child molesters and their advocates have crafted a strategy that tries to negate their abusive, criminal behavior, which we can call a “false memory” defense. Each of 22 of the more commonly used components of this defense is described and discussed with respect to what the science says about them. Armed with this knowledge, survivors, their clinicians, and their attorneys will be better able to refute this defense of disinformation.     

Child physical-sexual abuse: The role of sadism the role of sexuality

Abstract

Starting from several examples of clinical material, the author proposes an understanding of the mental functioning of a physically and/or sexually abusive parent. He bases his theoretical reflection on two analytical concepts: narcissism and perversion Relating the sadistic instinct to the former and the sexual instinct to the latter, he discerns two modes of functioning which have some points in common and some diverging points, but which show the dynamics involved in physical and sexual child abuse.

The relationship distinguished between the type of emotional relationship between the parents and the type of their emotional investment of their child allows us to understand how the complicity of the parents works against the child.

This approach to the functioning of the physically and/or sexually abusive parent implicitly gives an insight into the structuring of the personality of the child-victim, who in turn undergoes the risk of becoming a physically and/or sexually abusive parent with his own children.     

Abusers gaining custody in family courts: A case series of over turned decisions

Abstract

This article presents findings and recommendations based on an in-depth examination of records from 27 custody cases from across the United States. The goal of this case series was to determine why family courts may place children with a parent that the child alleges abused them rather than with the nonoffending parent. We focused on “turned around cases” involving allegations of child abuse that were at first viewed as false and later judged to be valid. The average time a child spent in the court ordered custody of an abusive parent was 3.2?years. In all cases we uncovered the father was the abusive parent and the mother sought to protect their child. Results revealed that initially courts were highly suspicious of mothers' motives for being concerned with abuse. These mothers were often treated poorly and two-thirds of the mothers were pathologized by the court for advocating for the safety of their children. Judges who initially ordered children into custody or visitation with abusive parents relied mainly on reports by custody evaluators and guardians ad litem who mistakenly accused mothers of attempting to alienate their children from the father or having coached the child to falsely report abuse. As a result, 59% of perpetrators were given sole custody and the rest were given joint custody or unsupervised visitation. After failing to be protected in the first custody determination, 88% of children reported new incidents of abuse. The abuse often became increasingly severe and the children's mental and physical health frequently deteriorated. The main reason that cases turned around was because protective parents were able to present compelling evidence of the abuse and back the evidence up with reports by mental health professionals who had specific expertise in child abuse rather than merely custody assessment.     

Paraphilic and Other Sexological Anomalies as a Sequel to the Syndrome of Child-Abuse (Psychosocial) Dwarfism

Six females and ten males aged eighteen or older had a pediatric histow of reversible growth failure diagnosed as the syndrome of psychosocial or child abuse dwarfism. They were followed in childhood and articipated in a sexological outcome study in young adulthood. Except for one bisexual male, all were rated as elerosexual. In sexuoerotic functioning, the distribution was: 5 normophilic; 5 hypohilic; 1 hyperphilic; 5 paraphilic. Disruption of the parentshild pnirgond in infancy and early childhood by parental deprivation and abuse put the child at risk for long-lasting anomolies of lover-lover pairbonding in adolescence and adulthood. The report is phenomenological and classificatory. It is not etiological, although, insofar as they are developmental, the findings do disclose the possibility of d namic relatedness between events at two or more different phases of the lifespan. On the basis of divergent developmental hrstories some conjectures concerning divergent outcomes are formulated.     

Child abuse: An existential process

This paper discusses child abuse as an existential crisis. It describes exostential counseling as an approach to helping abusive parents to become more responsible and better able to cope with this particular crisis of their existence. Three types of crises are identified: developmental or maturational, acute, and chronic. each appears receptive to existential counseling within a framework of crisis intervention. Themes and the basic philosophy of existentialism are discussed. A case example provides an illustration of existential couseling in child abuse. Suffering is viewed as a dynamic concept within the framework of the existential psychotherapy of Victor Frankl, called Logotherapy, which is the primary one employed in this paper.