Extending social security coverage: Concepts, global trends and policy issues

This article reviews the experience of some key low-, middle- and high-income countries that have successfully extended social security coverage or are in the process of doing so. It shows that a strong and competent State is a first requirement for the extension of social security. It also examines a variety of coverage indicators that can help national and international policymakers to focus their efforts on the extension of social security. Finally, it documents the growing use of tax-financed social pensions, and discusses some policy issues with regard to the link between tax-financed and contributory social security schemes.     

The impact of tax-financed pensions on poverty reduction in Latin America: Evidence from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica and Uruguay

In many Latin American countries, tax-financed pensions (TFPs) have expanded, mainly resulting from growing informalization of employment and stagnating or declining pension insurance coverage. In the five countries examined in this article, TFPs have generally been effective in reducing poverty and indigence. In Brazil rural social assistance pensions cut the incidence of destitution among poor older people by 95 per cent. In Chile TFPs considerably improved their poverty reduction effectiveness between 1990 and 2000. Tax-financed pensions have therefore been seen as an instrument to supplement contributory pension coverage and boost overall social security coverage. A key challenge is to increase pension insurance coverage through existing statutory pension insurance or special contributory schemes targeted on workers in the informal economy. Otherwise, TFPs could become financially and socially unsustainable in the future. There are also various ways to improve the financing, administration and eligibility criteria of TFPs, particularly because it is necessary to define consistent structure and benefit policies between these and contributory schemes.     

Changing the development policy paradigm: Investing in Social security floor for all

The Paper briefly reviews social security coverage that the world has achieved and summarizes economic and social benefits of a national social security system. It then goes on to argue that social security systems are a necessary part of the institutional framework of any effective market economy, creating—among other things—societal cohesion that is needed for long-term economic development. It makes the case that the introduction of basic social protection in developing countries is both a desirable and an affordable investment in their social and economic development. It estimates the global minimum investment cost to provide basic social security and finally suggests international instruments to introduce a global social security floor.     

Social security in a globalizing world

The main burden of the paper is to argue for enlarging both the concept and the coverage of social security, especially in developing countries, to address the twin problems of "deficiency" and "adversity". The two parts of this enlarged concept of social security are Basic Social Security (BSS) and Contingent Social Security (CSS). To strengthen the argument, lessons have been highlighted from the historical experience of Western countries, where the State played a leading role. Having argued for the extension of BSS, the paper also deals with the extension of CSS. This is best done through the informal economy, which employs a large majority of workers in developing countries. While the primacy of the State has been highlighted, the paper develops a typology of various social security models that could be used to study and understand the existing arrangements as well as the potentialities for extension.     

Coordination of social security programmes of developed and developing countries

The pattern of immigration to developed countries has changed dramatically. Immigrants are now predominately from developing countries. However, social security agreements, which coordinate programmes on a bilateral or multilateral basis and are designed to protect the social security rights of migrants, remain primarily restricted to the developed countries. The result is a lack of protection for many migrants. This is one of the major challenges facing social security programmes today, and one which must be addressed. A start to tackling this problem is to analyse the issues in the coordination of social security schemes of developed and developing countries. Four key elements are involved in this analysis: the existence of a technical basis for an agreement; reciprocity; the financial solvency of the schemes concerned; and the administrative capacity of the schemes to carry out the obligations inherent in an agreement.     

当代西方国家社会保障制度的演变

当代西方国家的社会保障制度类型不同 ,但是有着大致相同的发展进程 :从不断扩大到相对收缩态势 ;由单纯扶贫转向开发扶贫 ;兼顾丰裕社会进程中不同弱势集团的贫困 ;协调社会保障安全网的完善和过度保障带来的新问题     

Bhaskar and Bunge on Social Emergence

This article discusses the theories of social emergence developed by Roy Bhaskar and Mario Bunge. Bhaskar's concept of emergent causal power is shown to be ambiguous, and some of the difficulties of his depth-relational concept of social emergence are examined. It is argued that Bunge's systemic concept of emergent property is not only different, but also clearer and more consistent than Bhaskar's concept of emergent causal power. Despite its clarity and consistency, Bunge's definition of the concept of emergent property is shown to be too broad and analytically imprecise for the purposes of an emergentist social ontology. It is argued that Bunge's systemic account of social emergence can be developed further by using William Wimsatt's gradual approach to emergent phenomena and his four conditions of aggregativity of a systemic property. It is shown that these conditions provide useful conceptual tools for clarifying and investigating different kinds of mechanisms of social emergence and developing stronger varieties of the concept of emergent social property than that indicated in Bunge's definition of this concept.     

Financing and managing epidemiological-economic crises: Are we ready for another outbreak?

An epidemiological-economic crisis presents countries with two significant challenges, in addition to the health challenge - a growing deficit due to fiscal policy measures, and a shortage of essential workers needed to manage the crisis successfully. In this study, we propose an outline for economic readiness in case of a future crisis in general, and a pandemic outbreak in particular. Through the establishment of a dedicated income-based tax-financed budget aimed at funding government excess expenditure during a crisis, and by adopting a reserve program in the essential sector of the economy, social and economic costs can be reduced.     

Ageing and the changing role of the family and the community: An African perspective

Global ageing, the major social issue of the twenty-first century, will have greater social repercussions for developing countries. The fastest increase of older persons in terms of ratio in relation to younger people is happening in developing countries, and in Africa segregation of older people in rural areas will become manifest. While beneficial changes for women have accompanied modernization in many of the developing countries, the situation of older women appears to be particularly precarious. Social changes brought about by modernization are also profoundly affecting the traditional systems of care for older people. Even though most older people requiring care are still looked after within the informal structures of the family, this can no longer be taken for granted as we move into the new century. This paper critically reviews social protection systems and the resource constraints which characterize developing countries and warns against blind development of social security systems based on those of the industrialized countries. The paper argues for the design of intergenerational support back into mainstream social relations so that older persons are not marginalized and put at risk through social protection programmes which reinforce physical vulnerability stereotypes and stress welfare needs over and above older people's social and economic contributions to society     

Recent developments in China's social security reforms

China is one of the few developing countries which have managed to establish a comprehensive social security system encompassing social insurance (for pension, medical care, unemployment, employment injury and maternity), social assistance and a housing provident fund. The past two decades have witnessed a continuous process of reform in the Chinese social security system. This article highlights the latest developments in each of the schemes and offers some insights into the problems confronting the system and the prospects for the reform.     

Categorical Benefits in Welfare States: Findings from Great Britain and Israel

This paper examines the role of categorical benefits; i.e. non-means-tested and non-contributory cash benefits, in Great Britain and Israel. After introducing a more rigorous definition of the term and differentiating between various types of categorical benefits, it looks at the role and recent development of these benefits in the two countries. It finds that they play a growing and significant role in the social security systems of Great Britain and Israel. An examination of the decision-making process surrounding the adoption of these benefit programmes indicates why this is so. On the basis of these findings, initial conclusions relating to changes in the nature of social security are presented.     

Income security for older people: An Asian perspective

In Asia and the Pacific, as in other developing regions, the continuing growth of the aged population has a great impact on social security programmes generally and, in particular, on the income security of older persons. In societies where traditional support systems are breaking up, their need for social security protection is increasingly important. A system of social security for the elderly population exists in most countries of the region. Many are provident fund schemes, which are basically saving schemes, and their coverage is low. Where social insurance pension schemes exist, the levels of benefits provided are also low. The focus for future development, therefore, lies in converting the savings schemes into multitiered pension schemes, extending their coverage and raising the level of benefits. In this context the critical question concerns the role of the State and the type of schemes used. The need for public pension schemes is great in Asia and the Pacific, where the level of poverty is comparatively high. Building pension schemes, whether public or private, involves a set of issues that need to be addressed. This article considers the systems currently in place and the challenges and limitations faced when considering the future development of social security in this area.     

BASIC IDEAS FOR A COMPLETE SOCIAL SECURITY SCHEME

The development of nationwide systems of social security continues to be the major preoccupation of legislators in many countries. The article below, which was prepared by the Social Security Inspectorate of the Ministry of Labour and Social Insurance of Chile at the beginning of last year, develops a basic outline of a national social security scheme corresponding to current requirements both from the point of view of the social security rights of the insured population and from the point of view of the present state of social security techniques. It will be recalled that, as far back as 1924, Chile was one of the first Latin American countries to introduce social security. The contribution to the modern theory of social security made in this article can be considered as typical of the latest trends in this field in the Latin American continent.     

Extending social security protection to the entire population: Problems and issues

Rural, agricultural and informal-sector workers have often beendenied the social security protection to which other economic sectors of populations have had access, and this is particularly true in the case of developing countries. There are also other important groups which have few or no rights to social security protection, such as family, domestic and casual workers. The lack of coverage is disturbing, as witnessed by the frequency with which this topic appears on social security meeting agendas worldwide, and particularly so since these sectors, as a whole form a very large proportion of the populations of many countries. Certainly there are difficulties of a practical nature which inhibit extension of coverage to these groups. So what can social security systems do? What kind of coverage is best suited to the needs of these groups? This article, based on papers presented at an ISSA Regional Meeting for Asia and the Pacific held in Manila in 1992, analyses the issues and makes some suggestions for a strategy relating to extension of coverage.     

Social security: Indispensable solidarity

Social security must be considered not as an economic burden, but as a collection of mechanisms for collective solidarity based on the principle of income redistribution. The economic and social transformations that the various regions of the world are going through, in particular the globalization of the economy, are making social security increasingly necessary. Instead of yielding to proposals for the privatization of schemes — a formula that is less efficient and more expensive — we should be protecting and improving social security; developing it in those countries where its position is still weak; and stressing that, while its objectives are humane and social, it brings economic benefits too.     

The Social Development Summit and the developing countries

This article discusses some concerns of the 1996 UN Summit on Social Development. Conference organizers identified the three key conference issues as poverty alleviation, social integration of the marginalized and disadvantaged, and expansion of productive employment. The goal of a "society for all" means dealing with the increasing differences between rich and poor countries, the survival of weaker economies in a competitive market system, wide variations in consumption patterns between countries, attainment of political stability while respecting ethnic identity, the rise in social problems among countries with a high human development index, and increasing joblessness. The Human Development Report for 1994 emphasizes human security. Social development is not the equivalent of human resource development nor a side issue of economic growth. The integration of ethnic groups poses social and political problems. There remains a question about what political system and culture would be best for social integration. Developed countries define poverty as the inability of people and government to provide resources and necessary services for people's productive activity. Poverty in developing countries is blamed on colonialism. Globally, developed countries control 71% of world trade. Sharing resources to meet basic needs throughout the world is not an operational ideal. The highest 20% of income earners receive 83% of the world income. The culture of poverty is the strategy used by the poor to survive. Welfare is not an end in itself but does enable the poor to improve their conditions. Development that focuses on productive employment is uncertain. Developed and developing countries do not share similar perceptions of human rights. There is a question as to who should set the priorities for social development. Sustainable social development is related to preservation of natural resources, control of population growth, and promotion of social security.     

Southeast Asia's social security systems: Need for a system–wide perspective and professionalism

This paper provides an assessment of the social security arrangements in Southeast Asian countries, and suggests broad directions for reform. Noting the absence of functioning multitier social security systems in these countries, the analysis highlights wide variations in various characteristics of systems in Southeast Asia. The paper underscores the need to enhance professionalism in the performance of core functions of the provident and pension fund organizations in these countries; and to take a system–wide perspective. It recommends constituting a Provident and Pension Fund Authority (PPFA) in each of the Southeast Asian countries to undertake the above tasks.     

Social Security Systems in Low-Income Countries: Concepts, Constraints and the Need for Cooperation

This paper describes existing social security systems in developing countries and analyses their institutional strengths and weaknesses. To this end, it identifies four main providers of social security, namely the State, the market, member-based organizations, and private households. Given the strengths and weaknesses of each system, the paper explores the possibilities of a public-private partnership which should be based on the use of local information on the one hand while profiting from possibilities of risk sharing and risk pooling on the other.     

Has Social Security Become Irrelevant?

In recent years, it has often been asserted that social security has become irrelevant to contemporary economic and social realities. This claim has been accompanied by proposals for the abolition of social security and its replacement with commercial provision. In some countries, social security has already been extensively privatized. Instead of dismissing the claim that social security has become irrelevant, this article examines the views of social security's critics. It suggests that steps need to be taken to address their challenge and ensure social security's long-term survival.     

The role of mutuals and community-based insurance in social health protection systems: International experience on delegated functions

The institutional architecture for the provision of social health protection varies across countries, as do the actors and organizations involved. In some countries, mutual benefit societies and community-based health insurance organizations (CBHI) play a role in this area. In the 1990s, these were promoted particularly as a means of extending social security coverage, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. In the current context, the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development, as well as renewed political will to realize universal coverage, has led to a questioning of the role of mutuals/CBHI. However, the literature on the roles they play in national social security systems remains limited. For this scoping review, 49 documents were analysed, covering 18 countries worldwide, focused on the delegation of functions to mutuals/CBHI in national social health protection systems. The results reveal the dynamics of the delegation of functions within social protection systems over time and their implementation processes. These provide areas for reflection that can inform policy processes.