From Bucharest to Mexico: a decade of changing perceptions

The 2nd International Conference on Population held in Mexico City in 1984 had 3 main objectives: 1) to adopt the plan to changing demographic situations, 2) to enlarge the plan's scope so it can consider new views that have emerged since Bucharest, and 3) to reinforce the plan's operational aspects so that the plan can be applied more effectively. The Mexico conference had significant differences with the Bucharest gathering: 1) greater participation of developing countries, 2) clarification of the role of population and family planning in development, and 3) recognition of the status of women in development. Governments of many developing countries argue that they cannot wait for their countries to modernize sufficiently enough to stabilize their population levels. Participants in the Mexico conference agreed that family planning programs have been successful in reducing fertility at relatively low cost. The goal of a development-oriented population policy is to improve the people's standard of living by lowering fertility rates, improving health conditions and life expectancy, improving population distribution, and adopting sound economic policies. The overall objective of population policy should not be confined only to growth, distribution, and other demographic aspects; it is imperative that human life and human dignity be upheld.     

New perspectives on population: lessons from Cairo

The lessons from the 1994 World Population Conference in Cairo, Egypt, are summarized in this publication. The topics of discussion include the evolution of population policies, the changing policy environment, demographic trends, and solutions in the form of gender equity, provision of reproductive health services, and sustainable social and economic development. The program of action supported by 180 governments and targeted for 2015 articulated the goals of universal access to a full range of safe and reliable family planning methods and reproductive health services, a specified level of reduction in infant and child mortality, a specified level of reduction in maternal mortality, an increase in life expectancy to 70-75 years or more, and universal access to and completion of primary education. Other features include goals for improving women's status and equity in gender relations, expansion of educational and job opportunities for women and girls, and involvement of men in childrearing responsibilities and family planning. Steps should be taken to eliminate poverty and reduce or eliminate unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. Population policy must be integrated within social and economic development policies. About $22 billion will be needed for provision of family planning and reproductive health services by the year 2015. Costs will increase over the 10-year period due to the increased population to be served. Per person user costs for family planning alone are higher in countries without infrastructure and technical skills. Actual costs vary with the cost of contraceptive supplies, patterns of use, and efficiency of delivery systems. Although the plan offers 16 chapters worth of advice and recommends 243 specific actions, countries will have to be selective due to cost limitations. The 20/20 Initiative is proposed for sharing social service costs between international donors (20%) and host countries (20%). A separate UN projection of need is for 33% of support from international donors for family planning and related programs. The constraints to the implementation of the action plan are identified as the rate of demographic change, the extent of public support for population limitation and provision of family planning services, and potential conflicts of interests and funding between cooperating agencies. The World Bank has developed guidelines for policy development according to a country's identification as an emergent, transitional, or advanced country.     

New strategies for slowing population growth

Growth of world population over the next 100 years, until the year 2100, will produce an estimated 11.5 billion people. The past focus on reducing rapid population growth exclusively through family planning has not been sufficient. Population policy needs to be broadened to include health care, education, and poverty reduction. The population policy recommendations of Population Council Vice-President John Bongaarts and Senior Associate Judith Bruce were to reduce unwanted pregnancies by expanding services that promote reproductive choice and better health, to reduce the demand for large families by creating favorable conditions for small families, and to invest in adolescents. The Population Council 1994 publication "Population Growth and Our Caring Capacity" outlined these issues. Another similar article by John Bongaarts appeared in the journal "Science" in 1994. In developing countries, excluding China, about 25% of all births are unwanted; 25 million abortions are performed for unwanted pregnancies. The provision of comprehensive family planning programs will go a long way toward achieving a reduction in unwanted pregnancies. In addition, changes are needed in male control over female sexuality and fertility and in cultural beliefs that are obstacles to use of contraception. Stabilization of population at 2 children per family will not occur unless there is a desire for small families. In most less developed countries, large family sizes are preferred. Governments have an opportunity to adopt policies that reduce economic and social risks of having small families. This can be accomplished through the widespread education of children, a reduction in infant and child mortality, improvement in the economic and social and legal status of women, and provision of equitable gender relations in marriage and child rearing. The rights of children to be wanted, planned, and adequately cared for need to be supported. These aforementioned measures will help to reduce fertility, provide support for small families, and justify investment in social development. Population momentum will keep population growing for some time even with replacement level fertility. Investment in adolescents through enhancement of self-esteem and promotion of later childbearing can lengthen the span between generations and slow population momentum. Population policies will be more effective when human rights are protected.     

Philippines: decentralized approach shows results

In the Philippines several steps have been taken to meet the challenge of increasing population growth. Commencing with the Republic Act 6365, known as the Population Act (1971) program directives focus on achieving and maintaining population levels most conducive to the national welfare. In 1978 a Special Committee was constituted by the President to review the population program. Pursuant to the Committee's findings certain changes were adopted. The thrust is now towards longterm planning to ensure a more significant and perceptible demographic impact of development programs and policies. Increasing attention is paid to regional development and spatial distribution in the country. The 1978-82 Development Plan states more clearly the interaction between population and development. The National Economic and Development Authority, the central policy and planning agency of the government, takes charge of formulation and coordinating the broader aspects of population policy and integrating population with socioeconomic plans and policies. At present the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) is implementing a project known as the Population/Development Planning and Research (PDPR) project with financial support from the UN Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA). This project promotes and facilitates the integration of the population dimension in the planning process. It does this by maintaining linkages and instituting collaborative mechanisms with the different NEDA regional offices and sectoral ministries. It also trains government planners in ways of integrating population concerns into the development plan. PDPR promotes the use of population and development research for planning purposes and policy formation. The Philippine Development Plan, 1978-82, recognized that an improvement in the level of 1 sector reinforces the performance of the other sectors. Since the establishment of the National Population Program 12 years ago, population and family planning have been successfully integrated with various development sectors, notably, labor, health, and education. Through the policies of integration, multiagency participation, and partnership of the public and private sectors, the Commission on Population uses existing development programs of government and private organizations as vehicles for family planning information and services and shares the responsibility of implementing all facets of the population program with various participating agencies in the government and private sector.     

The population policy of China

Summary China has a consistent and well-defined policy to regulate the growth of her population. Population policy is considered as an integral part of overall social and economic development policy. It promotes the reduction of the growth rate in densely populated areas but encourages the increase of population in sparsely populated areas and among national minorities. A series of planned internal migration policies has regulated the spatial distribution of population. Main factors affecting the implementation of China's population policy are the establishment of an effective organization and communication system, the participation of the masses in the work, the socialist transformation of the national economy, the changes in the structure and functions of the Chinese family, the changing status of Chinese women, the development of public health services and the campaign for late marriage and family planning.     

The role of law in population and development

Ghana and Kenya have had long experience with population policies, while some other countries just recently adopted such policies. In Ghana the population growth rate is 3.1% a year, which hampers the country's development. 45% of the population is under the age of 15, constituting a high dependency burden on the economy. The adverse effects of high population growth are manifested in overgrazing and desertification. The number of the aged is also increasing, which has socioeconomic implications. There are also over 1 million people with disability requiring rehabilitation and medical care. Women, children, and young people are adversely affected by rapid population growth because of unemployment, teenage pregnancy, drug abuse, prostitution, sexually transmitted diseases, and HIV/ AIDS. Educational programs are needed to modify lifestyles that make people vulnerable. The 1969 population policy and the Revised National Population Policy recognize the importance of the law in addressing these issues. This involves tax laws and regulations affecting family size, the licensing of medical practice and paramedical personnel, laws concerning the importation and distribution of contraceptives, regulations on vital statistics, abortion, child and youth welfare and education, and the status of women. Ghana has also signed international charters such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Ghana was the first country to sign the World Leaders' Declaration on Population in 1967. During the 1962-63 session of the United Nations Ghana had sponsored a resolution on population growth and economic development. Ghana also endorsed the Kilimanjaro Plan of Action on Population and Sustainable Development (1984) and the Dakar/Ngor Declaration on Population and Sustainable Development (1992). The National Population Council has embarked on the reform of laws to accommodate population issues, to influence behavior, to empower women, and to counteract harmful traditional practices.     

Thinking about several problems of the research of our family planning strategy]

On the basis of 1982 census data, it is estimated that from 1987-1997 13 million women will enter the age of marriage and child-bearing each year. The tasks of keeping the population size around 1.2 billion by the year 2000 is arduous. Great efforts have to be made to continue encouraging one child/couple, and to pursue the current plans and policies and maintain strict control over fertility. Keeping population growth in pace with economic growth, environment, ecological balance, availability of per capita resources, education programs, employment capability, health services, maternal and child care, social welfare and social security should be a component of the long term development strategy of the country. Family planning is a comprehensive program which involves long cycles and complicated factors, viewpoints of expediency in guiding policy and program formulation for short term benefits are inappropriate. The emphasis of family planning program strategy should be placed on the rural areas where the majority of population reside. Specifically, the major aspects of strategic thrusts should be the linkage between policy implementation and reception, between family planning publicity and changes of ideation on fertility; the integrated urban and rural program management relating to migration and differentiation of policy towards minority population and areas in different economic development stages. In order to achieve the above strategies, several measures are proposed. (1) strengthening family planning program and organization structure; (2) providing information on population and contraception; (3) establishing family planning program network for infiltration effects; (4) using government financing, taxation, loan, social welfare and penalty to regulate fertility motivations; (5) improving the system of target allocation and data reporting to facilitate program implementation; (6) strengthening population projection and policy research; (7) and strengthening training of family planning personnel to improve program efficiency.     

The Philippine population program under the Aquino administration

3 views of the Philippine Population Program under the Aquino government are presented: the first states the government's position on population programs and the next 2 criticize that position. Issued by the Commission on Population (POPCOM) in early 1987, the first statement establishes the government's stance on population programs. It explains that the 1987 Philippine Constitution reaffirms the government's commitment to the ultimate goal of the Population Program: the improvement of the quality of life in a just and humane society. The statement explains the constitutional guarantees, policy principles, and policy strategies concerning population. The next view presented is an excerpt from Alejandro N. Herrin's paper entitled "Population, Health and Education: Policy Initiatives Under the Aquino Administration." In it, Herrin explains that after 1 year of silence, POPCOM finally issued a policy statement. The statement, however, is marked by ambiguity, avoiding an explicit mention of a policy to moderate fertility. Furthermore, the statement fails to clarify the government's position on 2 basic issues: whether or not an acceptable economic and social development can be achieved within a reasonable time without a moderation of the current high fertility and population growth, and whether or not the government is justified in sponsoring a program to moderate fertility and population growth. The 3rd view presented in the document is that of Virginia A. Miralao. In her essay "Population Policies, Family Planning Programs, and Women's Reproductive Rights," Miralao explains that the current population program -- which directly affects the lives of women -- has virtually excluded women in its planning. Moreover, since Aquino came into power, the Catholic church has gained great influence and has opposed family planning programs.     

1980 ASEAN programme roundup: a model in the making

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) experts and heads of national population programs held their 4th meeting in Singapore from November 24-28, 1980. Program heads resolved to take steps to link their national activities in the population field with those of the ASEAN Population Program and carry out studies and a joint programming exercise in 1981. Progress reports on the following Phase 1 projects were given: 1) integration of population and rural development policies and programs in ASEAN countries including Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand; 2) development of an inter-country modular training program for personnel in population and rural development; 3) multi-media support for population programs in the context of rural development in ASEAN countries; 4) utilization of research findings in population and family planning for policy formulation and program management in ASEAN countries; and 5) migration in relation to rural development. Phase 2 projects approved by ASEAN country participants were also discussed: 1) institutional development and exchange of personnel, 2) women in development, 3) developing and strengthening national population information systems and networks in ASEAN countries, 4) population and development dynamics and the man/resource balance, 5) studies on health and family planning in ASEAN countries, 6) population migration movement and development, and 7) development of ASEAN social indicators.     

惠州市计划生育综合改革的思考①

惠州市人口和计划生育综合改革十年的实践说明,从统治范式到治理范式的转变,是人口和计划生育工作作为社会公共事务的现实选择和必然需求;它不仅是工作理念上的变革,而且是工作机制、工作方式和工作手段的根本性变革,带来的是计划生育中私人理性和公共理性矛盾的化解、社会的和谐、群众的满意和支持。     

Future population growth: researchers in three countries quantify causes and propose policies

This article discusses Population Council analyses conducted by social scientists from India, Kenya, and the Philippines. These scientists agreed that population momentum would continue to increase population size, and that governments must strengthen and create a range of economic, health, and social programs and policies to slow population growth. Multiple approaches will be needed. John Bongaarts is credited with being the first to identify the key role of population momentum and to decompose growth into unwanted fertility, high desired fertility, and population momentum. Unwanted fertility is responsible for about 19% of projected population growth in India, 26% in Kenya, and 16% in the Philippines. High wanted fertility accounts for 20% of future growth in India, 6% in Kenya, and 19% in the Philippines. Population momentum can account for under 50% or over 90% of growth. Unwanted fertility can be addressed by fulfilling unmet need and increasing knowledge of methods, reducing the fear of side effects and disapproval, and eliminating poor service. Family planning programs need to be strengthened and integrated with maternal and child health services. Preferred and actual family sizes can be reduced by lowering infant mortality by means of increasing infant and child health services and girls' educational attainment. Population momentum can be addressed by delaying age at marriage and childbearing through improving social conditions. Investments in human development through education, training, and income generation can create the conditions for slowing population growth. Countries should decompose population growth into its components of unwanted and high wanted fertility and population momentum as a means of distributing resources most effectively.     

4th International Population Conference: drawing the community into population programs

Summarizes the deliberations and recommendations of the (1978) 4th International Population Conference: "Expanding Rural and Urban Community Participation in Population Programs," sponsored by the World Population Society and the Population Center Foundation, and held in the Philippines. The 2 main concerns were finding ways of involving people in rural villages and urban communities in population programs, and fostering the sharing of ideas and experiences for the benefit of program administrators. Topics covered by the conference and reviewed here were organization and action for community participation; relating population and family planning to other services and the relevant personnel; role of women and women's organizations; involvement of youth; distribution of family planning information, techniques, and supplies; and new ideas and approaches. The resolutions of the delegates and other recommendations are also reviewed.     

Toward a U.S. population policy

The gratifying media results from a concerted national and local publicity effort when Zero Population Growth (ZPG) released its recommendations for a national population policy are reported. Support was received from 10 members of Congress and local leaders. 8 ZPG chapters and the Washington office held press conferences casting the meaning of increased population growth in regional terms. In Cincinnati, ZPG focused on the shortage of landfill space, in San Francisco the water shortage, and in Massachusetts the rapid urbanization of prime farmland. The Congressmen emphasized that the U.S. must have a comprehensive population policy before it can tell other countries they must. Among the ZPG policies recommended are: zero population growth by 2008, increased funding for family planning services and education, special programs for teenagers, greater public education on population dynamics, increased funding for contraceptive research, enforcement of existing immigration laws, comprehensive review of immigration policy, equal rights for women, and more equitable income tax policy.     

A Population Policy Rationale for the Twenty‐First Century

I propose that the primary goal of twenty‐first‐century population policies should be to strengthen the human resource base for national and global sustainable development. I discuss the shortcomings of the three dominant twentieth‐century population policy rationales: acceptance of replacement‐level fertility as a demographic goal; realizing a “demographic dividend” from the changing age structure; and filling the “unmet need” for family planning. I demonstrate that in all three cases the explicit incorporation of education into the model changes the picture and makes female education a key population policy priority. Population policies under this new rationale could be viewed as public human resource management. I argue that 20 years after the Cairo ICPD the international community needs a new rationale for population policies in the context of sustainable development and that a focus on human capital development, in particular education and health, is the most promising approach.     

International Conference on Population concluded with success

This article briefly summarizes the proceedings of the International Conference on Population held in Mexico city in August, 1984. The Secretary General of the Conference, R.M. Salas stated the overriding objective of population policies to be stabilization of global population, and called for cntinuation and strengthening of global population programs. Many delegations gave particular emphasis to the strict respect for state sovereignty in the formulation and implementation of national population policies, and to the basic human right of all couples and individuals to have full freedom to decide the number and spacing of their children, as well as to have full access to information and means necessary to make their decision. The US view that a free economy has a direct and rapid effect on fertility decline was rejected because some delegations deemed it improper to mention only 1 economic system in an international document. A proposal from the Holy See on abortion met with compromise in the adoption of the statement that "abortion should not be, in any case, promoted as a method of family planning." The chariman of the 27 member Chinese delegation, Wang Wei, emphasized in his speech the need for each country to determine its own policy regarding population, and described some of China's achievements in population control. The Chinese delegation made its own contribution to the formulation of 88 recommendations by actively participating in discussions and group consultations and offering its constructive proposals for important items. China was elected as one of the Vice Chairmen of the Conference and served as a member country of the Credential Committee as well as a co-sponsor of the Declaration.     

人口与生育政策变动对代际关系的影响

人口与生育政策直接影响着人们的生育需求和生育观念 ,不同的政策有不同的生育动机 ,所追求的孩子数量、质量也不一样 ,从而导致父母与子女之间的代际关系各异。本文以 1 973年为界论述了我国 1 973年前后的人口与生育政策变化及生育观念的转变对代际关系的影响     

Study thoroughly the Marxist theory on population, develop population science in China]

The Third National Population Science Congress emphasized the production theory of Marxism, the basic difference between China's population control and the old and new Malthusianism, and possible social problems caused by the one child per couple policy. The meeting was well-organized, and the participants were actively involved; it included a keynote speech, group discussions, and seminars by specialists. Most people agreed that population production should be included in the social economy and that both material and population production should together decide the development of the society. Some people believed that Malthus' population theory is antirevolutionary and totally unacceptable. Others thought that there are some positive aspects such as the coordination of population with consumer goods and his population control measures. Many valuable suggestions were made in the meeting concerning population control. This Congress also established a Chinese Population Society, passed the bylaws, and elected members of the board of directors for the Society. Vice-Premier Chen gave an important closing speech about the importance of family planning and population control.     

A summary analysis of the 3rd inquiry

20 ESCAP member countries responded to the "Third Population Inquiry among Governments: Population policies in the context of development in 1976." The questionnaire sent to the member countries covered economic and social development and population growth, mortality, fertility and family formation, population distribution and internal migration, international migration, population data collection and research, training, and institutional arrangements for the formulation of population policies within development. Most of the governments in the ESCAP region that responded indicate that the present rate of population growth constrains their social and economic development. Among the governments that consider the present rate of population growth to constrain economic and social development, 13 countries regarded the most appropriate response to the constraint would include an adjustment of both socioeconomic and demographic factors. 11 of the governments regarded their present levels of average life expectancy at birth "acceptable" and 7 identified their levels as "unacceptable." Most of the governments who responded consider that, in general, their present level of fertility is too high and constrains family well-being. Internal migration and population distribution are coming to be seen as concerns for government population policy. The most popular approaches to distributing economic and social activities are rural development, urban and regional development and industrial dispersion. There was much less concern among the governments returning the questionnaire about the effect of international migration than internal migration on social and economic development.     

基层民主自治进程中乡村计划生育政策落实的困境及出路——基于基层治理中“不出事逻辑”的分析视角

本文对基层民主自治进程中乡村计划生育政策落实的困境及出路进行了探讨。基层民主自治是我国的一项基本政治制度,实行基层民主自治是发展中国特色社会主义民主政治的重要内容。但是在乡村推行基层民主自治的过程中,乡村计划生育政策的落实陷入一些困境,这些困境集中表现为计生政策与村民生育愿望、与村委会选举、与社会保障体系、与利益导向机制及与其它相关部门和政策的冲突与矛盾。鉴于此,本文相对应地提出了加强宣传教育、完善村民自治、健全社会保障体系、健全舆论导向机制以及加强政策的同向性与协调度等对策建议,以期推动计划生育政策在乡村进一步落实。     

The Hague Forum on the Implementation of the Cairo Program of Action

To ascertain progress in the implementation of the Program of Action adopted at the 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD), and to discuss needed future action toward realization of the goals set by that conference, the United Nations Population Fund convened an intergovernmental Forum that met in The Hague, hosted by the government of the Netherlands, 8–12 February 1999. The Hague Forum was preceded by related meetings of nongovernmental organizations, representatives of youth groups, and of parliamentarians. Excerpts from the Report of the Hague Forum, sections V and X, with the original paragraph numbers retained, are reproduced below. The first of these sections summarizes recent positive and negative developments in the field of reproductive health and notes demographic changes that require special attention. The section on mobilization of resources—the concluding section of the Report—describes resource flows, international and domestic, for population and reproductive health programs during the last few years. Although donor funding (a key issue discussed at the Forum) has increased, it falls short of the goals specified by ICPD. The Report enumerates actions proposed for remedying deficiencies in mobilizing resources and for increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of their use.