Entrepreneurs in the rural environment

Change in rural activities is frequently seen as: (1) reaction to changes in other areas and sectors, and (2) negative. This downplays the role and importance of entrepreneurs, both farm and non-farm, in sustaining the vitality of rural areas. The notion of entrepreneur can be extended to entrepreneurial activity by other people, e.g. local government activity, which is an integral part of rural community economic development. Both the entrepreneur and the quasi-entrepreneur in local government are critical leaders in urban fringes and other rural areas alike. Their activity in an area is partly dependent upon the broader political, social and economic environment which influences: (1) the need to change and (2) whether any “benefit” can be derived from entrepreneurial activity. A framework is presented in this paper to place entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial activity into the context first, of decision-taking generally in the rural environment, and second, of the broader “enabling” environment. It is argued that constraints originating in this broader environment are often necessary, but they may have unforeseen side-effects in discouraging innovation. Changes in such constraints or in the manner in which they are implemented may be a necessary ingredient to maintain rural vitality through encouraging entrepreneurial activity.     

Urban-rural boundary conflicts: the reshaping of Israel's rural map

This study examines boundary conflicts between urban and rural local authorities in Israel. It focuses on three basic questions: what are the reasons for urban-rural boundary conflicts?; do these reasons vary across time and space?; and, what are the underlying structural causes that shape these variations? The study is based on a quantitative and qualitative analysis of boundary conflicts involving Israeli rural regional councils between the 1960s and the early 1990s. It demonstrates that macro-societal structural processes are at the root of urban-rural boundary conflicts. Mounting pressures on regional councils have arisen from political, economic and ideological processes which have shaken the foundations of the councils and produced unprecedented pressures on their territory. Processes of counter-urbanization have played a substantial role, but have been deeply intertwined in a political-ideological context. These processes may either lead to: (1) further fragmentation and contraction of areas managed by rural local government; (2) transformation of rural local governments into entities of a new type; or (3) formation of new forms of urban-rural regional co-operation.     

The demographic evolution of rural France (1968-1982)

"After more than a century of decline, noticeable increases in the rural population of France became apparent in the 1982 census. The spatial patterns of these changes are interpreted by comparing a set of demographic variables in the 1968-1975 and 1975-1982 intercensal periods. Migration to rural areas near many of the major cities (rurbanization) and to the southern part of France is the main demographic explanation. Using factor analysis and a hierarchical classification system the underlying demographic associations are established and the nation is differentiated into seven types. A method for estimating the probabilities of any one type occurring is also demonstrated. The timing of the demographic changes and the fundamental societal forces which have influenced them suggest that government policy has played a minor part in the evolution."     

Lay discourses of the rural and stated and revealed preferences for rural living. Some evidence of the existence of a rural idyll in the Netherlands

Dutch rural areas have changed into a post-modern countryside and have become marketable commodities. The demand for rural space and rural amenities has increased, with concomitant tensions on the rural housing market, tensions which are enhanced by the restrictive spatial policy in Dutch rural areas. The demand for rural residential environments appears to be large. This paper reports the results of our research into the preferences of urban households for living in a rural residential environment. These preferences will be linked with images and representations of the countryside. It is assumed that individual images of the countryside (whether idyllic or not) affect residential preferences and these preferences have, in turn, their effect on migration behaviour. Empirical evidence suggests that perceptions, preferences and behaviour pertaining to rural residential environments are indeed interrelated. The Dutch countryside commands a very positive image and the demand for residential environments with rural characteristics is considerable. Consequently, a rural idyll can be identified in The Netherlands.     

The restructuring of local government in rural regions: A rural development perspective

Rural development is a multidimensional phenomenon. The political dimension, relating as it does to power, resources, accountability, priorities and choice, is a pivotal aspect of rural development. Local government is often the centrepiece of rural political systems. Interventions to reconfigure local government are therefore quintessentially rural development initiatives. They serve to supplement, neutralize or detract from other development initiatives. One way to critically examine local government restructuring policies and programmes is to determine the extent to which they accord with commonly held principles of rural development, both in terms of outcomes and process. This research critically examines a particular public policy intervention in rural Ontario, Canada. Through the application of rural development principles and criteria, it concludes that the process was antithetical to rural development, and in terms of outcomes, of dubious value. It poses several questions and challenges for rural development theory, including governance, and practice.     

Decentralisation and devolution to the English regions: Assessing the implications for rural policy and delivery

The White Paper Your Region, Your Choice: Revitalising the English Regions opened the way for reforms to regional government in England which, it asserted, will improve decision-making and deliver better quality services. In the field of rural policy, too, there are demands for decentralisation to improve service delivery and reflect the diversity of rural areas. Drawing upon a case study of rural policy making and implementation in the English West Midlands, this paper explores current institutional structures for rural policy making and how further administrative decentralisation or political devolution might enhance them. It reveals a complex set of fragmented structures and blurred accountabilities in which policy implementation is an outstanding concern. The Government's administrative reforms, together with proposals to decentralise responsibility for rural service delivery, may assist in promoting greater differentiation and co-ordination at the regional tier. Nonetheless, in the absence of the transfer of significant resources and influence to an elected regional body, efforts to establish a more distinct and coherent approach to rural policy-making and delivery will continue to be hampered.     

A critique of ‘new’ rural local governance: The case of gender in a rural Australian setting

Over the past decade rural social scientists have demonstrated significant interest in documenting the new forms of governance emerging in rural and regional areas. However, little attention has been given to examining the gendered aspects of these new arrangements. This paper takes up the issue of gender and governance in rural areas by reporting on the establishment, membership and practices of a new governing organisation in a local government area in a small rural township in Australia. Men hold almost all positions on the 19-member board of this institution charged with facilitating development in the shire. This is not surprising, given women's exclusion from the male-dominated networks from which appointees are selected. While this numerical dominance is important, it is not just the presence of men's bodies that is of concern to this paper. Also of interest is the way in which hegemonic discourses of masculinity are privileged by board members. This includes an emphasis on competition, entrepreneurialism, and aggression, and a focus on economic concerns over and above social issues. In conclusion, there may be a lot that is ‘new’ in the governance of contemporary Western rural nations, but what is not is that these forms of governance are gendered, just as the traditional state has always been, in a way that excludes women and feminine subjectivities.     

The rural space in Israel in search of renewed identity: The case of the moshav

This paper aims to describe and explain the changes which have taken place in the rural areas of Israel by focussing on a particular type of community—the moshav, which is a planned smallholders’ settlement, based on family farms and legally organized as a cooperative society. An analysis of the changes that have taken place in the moshav in the past few decades reveals a process of rural restructuring, similar to that which is occurring in many developed countries. New economic activities have replaced farming as sources of income, and newcomers, mostly of urban origin, have invaded rural communities in search of a better quality of life. These changes derive from a combination of structural changes in agriculture, changing government policies and cumulative decisions of rural households. The result is a more heterogeneous moshav—physically, economically and socially, and growing regional, inter-village and intra-village disparities. These developments have a direct impact on the organizational structure of the moshav, its environmental qualities and its exchange relations with the urban sector. As part of the ongoing process of change the moshav is gradually losing some of its unique features, which formed the basis for its identity as a special type of rural community. This leads to the question of whether the moshav will be able to develop a new identity as a distinct type of rural community, or turn into a suburban or urban community. The answer will depend largely on the direction taken by government policy.     

Turmoil in the welfare system reshapes rural Sweden

The purpose of the article is to discuss rural change and the effects of policies on the spatial distribution of welfare in Sweden. It is argued that the Swedish welfare model has had a major redistributional effect in favour of peripheral regions. The outcome is largely unintentional as the welfare system is directed to individuals rather than to regions. When recession and political change put pressure on the welfare model, a corresponding unintentional negative effect will hit the periphery. Therefore, a spatial perspective on the changing state budget is needed in order to develop a new policy for rural areas. Finally, attention is drawn to the complex pattern of rural change in Sweden. A cluster of changes are operating at different levels, giving new prospects to some regions while others will have continuing and increasing problems.     

Migration: Pre-requisite for rural economic regeneration?

Migration from and to depopulating areas is related to the prospects for rural economic regeneration. The focus is on whether or not migration processes give rise to the necessary human capital required for successful endogenous development. Data from Scottish case studies pertaining to in-, out- and return migrants are analysed. Only by leaving rural areas can young adults acquire the necessary skills to participate in endogenous development, however, few out-migrants subsequently return. In-migrants, while often possessing the necessary human capital to bring about an economic regeneration, are associated with relatively little new job creation. Instead in-migration is characterised by self-employment. It is argued that migration is a pre-requisite for rural economic regeneration, but that a rural endogenous development policy on its own will have limited success in regenerating areas experiencing on-going depopulation. Exogenous development strategies are also required.     

Population dynamics in rural South Australia

The authors examine recent trends in Australia in turnaround migration, or the movement of the population from urban to rural areas. "The paper assesses the major changes which have occurred in population trends within the non-metropolitan sector of the nation, South Australia and, in particular, a study area in the lower north region of South Australia. The analysis of the case study region draws upon a survey undertaken in 1968-1970 and partially replicated in 1980 and 1990. It appears that for Australia in general and for the study area the turnaround is continuing but at a slower pace and in a more spatially concentrated pattern."     

The Europeanisation of local authorities: Challenges for rural areas

The completion of the Single European Market, the availability to regions of EC assistance and the growing volume of EC legislation to be implemented at the local level have begun to lead to important changes in the roles and responsibilities of many U.K. local authorities. The power of sub-national government in most EC states is likely to be enhanced by the move towards a ‘Europe of the Regions’. However, there are constraints on British local authorities which may render them less able to respond to the challenges and opportunities presented by closer European integration than their counterparts in other parts of the Community. Authorities in rural areas face particular problems, not shared by metropolitan areas. However, some of the recent approaches which have been taken by rural authorities in the U.K. demonstrate ways of overcoming the difficulties they face in responding to Europeanisation. Similar strategies might usefully be adopted by other authorities which have not as yet been closely involved with EC initiatives and programmes.     

Women's fear of crime: A rural perspective

This paper examines women's experience of fear of crime in rural areas. It argues that much existing research on issues of gender, fear and safety have focused on urban areas and that as a result we know relatively little about women's experience of fear in a rural context. As well as arguing that we need to redress the balance and respond to the dearth of knowledge about rural women's fear, the paper asserts the importance of a rural perspective in understanding the relationship between fear and the social and cultural construction of place. The rural in particular provides an important site for such an understanding since, as is argued here, the notion of safety is central to constructions of rurality. The paper presents data on rural women's experience of fear and crime from research carried out in New Zealand and the UK. It draws on work undertaken in four rural communities and begins to identify the extent and nature of women's fears and how these relate to their experience of rurality. The paper shows how while popular constructions of the rural as friendly, safe and largely crime free endure, there is a recognition amongst rural women of the growing problems surrounding personal safety. It also demonstrates the importance of social constructions of the rural community in identifying the relevance of the ‘stranger’ and the marginalised ‘other’ to women's feelings of fear.     

The rural arena: The diversity of protest in rural England

In the past 15–20 years, the rural areas of England have been used by a wide diversity of groups as the stage for their protest activities. Some have argued that this is due the rise of a rural social movement; this paper contends that rural areas have become both available and advantageous as the locale of protest through a range of interlocking factors. Firstly, that the rise of the network society has repositioned the societal importance of rural areas. Secondly, that the governance of rural areas has changed, allowing the social stake of rurality to be more widely contested. Thirdly, that opportunities to protest have shifted in favour of rural spaces, in terms of technology and policing. Through a discussion of recent changes in rural England and three case studies, The Land is Ours, Farmers for Action and the Organic Food and Farming Movement, this paper examines these changes and what they mean for the future of rural England.     

The demographic evolution of rural France (1968–1982)

After more than a century of decline, noticeable increases in the rural population of France became apparent in the 1982 census. The spatial patterns of these changes are interpreted by comparing a set of demographic variables in the 1968–1975 and 1975–1982 intercensal periods. Migration to rural areas near many of the major cities (rurbanization) and to the southern part of France is the main demographic explanation. Using factor analysis and a hierarchical classification system the underlying demographic associations are established and the nation is differentiated into seven types. A method for estimating the probabilities of any one type occurring is also demonstrated. The timing of the demographic changes and the fundamental societal forces which have influenced them suggest that government policy has played a minor part in the evolution.     

Lay discourses of the rural: Developments and implications for rural studies

Considerations of lay discourses of the rural - people's everyday interpretations of rural places and ideas of the rural - have become increasingly evident in some key articles addressing the theory and practice of academic rural studies. A major element of the retheorization of rural studies, which itself is set within the broader contexts of recent developments in social theory, considerations of lay discourses have concerned themselves with the nature and implications of everyday interpretations and constructions of the rural, and, in some cases, how academic discourses are complexly bound up with such processes. This paper sets out to review some of the key examples of how and why lay discourses are being used in academic approaches to the rural, and how some of these are also addressing the key question of the problematic relationship between lay and academic discourses. It then aims to develop these initiatives, firstly, by suggesting some clarification of what lay discourse is; how other discourses, particularly popular and professional, should be identified; and why close attention should be paid to how they link up. Secondly, drawing on qualitative case study material gathered from an academic incursion into lay discourses of a small village in south west England, it is suggested that the very different nature of lay discourses has not been fully appreciated, and this has led to only partial success in some academic attempts to assimilate them into new approaches to rural studies, particularly in the ongoing debate about definitions of the rural. It is shown that lay discourses of the rural, such as they are, can be expected to be both spatially and conceptually complex and incoherent to an extent that will make it difficult for them to be incorporated into established (modern) academic rural approaches and thus leads to conclusions that in part support Murdoch and Pratt's (1993) concept of the ‘post-rural’.     

Voluntary action in rural areas: the case of neighbourhood watch

This paper presents the results of an empirical investigation into active Neighbourhood Watch (NW) Schemes in Hereford and Worcester: an area which has experienced a rise in both crime rate and the number of active NW Schemes in the last ten years. The example of NW is used to examine the effectiveness of voluntary action to tackle social problems in rural areas and to consider the changing nature of social relations found there. More specifically, the study of these schemes allows an assessment to be made of the impact and nature of crime in rural areas and measures the effectiveness of NW in countering it. The paper reveals that NW does have an important role to play in reducing fear of crime and improving police relations. It confirms that NW operates with considerable social bias which is a recognised problem associated with voluntary action. The final discussion highlights the need for more systematic studies of the problem of rural crime.     

Deprivation,poverty and marginalization in rural lifestyles in England and Wales

Research studies of the problems of rural life in Britain have often been based on concepts such as ‘deprivation’ or ‘disadvantage’. In this paper we explore the basis of these conceptualizations and note claims that they have been appropriated by government at local and central levels, suggesting that criticism of such appropriation should not lead to a neglect of material privation of opportunities caused by changes to the structure of rural life, brought about by economic restructuring, social recomposition and the political-economy of deregulation. Rather, we draw on studies of rural poverty to suggest that the changing material base of rural life has been accompanied by a range of discursive strategies which obscure rural problems and even filter them out altogether in the various constructions of idyll-ized rural life as the spatial expression of self-supporting, self-sufficient, happy, healthy and problem-free existence in a market place economy. Using some of the findings from the Rural Lifestyles research programme in England and Wales we discuss some of the different experiences of opportunity privation in rural areas, and some of the different ways in which cultural constructions of rural life can lead to a range of expectations from imagined rural geographies which are variously met and not met in day-to-day rural lifestyles. We suggest that rural problems are associated with a wide range of experiences of marginalization — economic, political, social, cultural — which cannot be mapped out according to normative or cultural expectations, but which occur differently at the intersection of material and experiential elements of rural lifestyles.     

Infrastructure planning in rural Massachusetts

This paper describes the importance of understanding and dealing with the problems of infrastructure planning and maintenance in rural communities. Infrastructure is defined to include roads, bridges, water and wastewater collection and treatment systems, and public buildings and capital equipment. The authors base their findings primarily on the experience of communities in Massachusetts, but these findings are readily applied to the situation of rural communities elsewhere in the U.S.A. and other developed countries. Three major conclusions are presented in the paper: the need for rural communities to develop long-range plans for infrastructure maintenance and finance; the need to develop effective local institutions to assume this responsibility, and the importance of managing growth in fast-growing rural areas in order to minimize the need for major expansion of infrastructure systems.     

Local exchange trading systems-a rural response to the globalization of capitalism?

The local exchange trading system represents a possible community-level response to the globalization of capitalism. However, few studies have examined the potential of the LETS concept in rural areas, and no studies are available of LETS in rural Scotland. The present research employs empirical evidence from the Isle of Skye to investigate the potential of LETS for relocalising social and economic relations in remoter rural areas. This particular socio-cultural milieu presents both obstacles and opportunities for the development of LETS. It is suggested that further expansion of the Skye system could be stimulated by a focus on local food production. A LETS-based food co-operative can promote direct links between producers and consumers, extend the membership base and thereby reduce the frictional effect of distance on trading and social contact. It is concluded that to achieve such an objective the efforts of LETS members would be facilitated by the support of a sympathetic local authority.