Mothering and everyday life during and in the aftermath of domestic violence among women with immigrant backgrounds in Norway

This paper focuses on how immigrant women experience and negotiate their everyday life with children prior to and after leaving a violent partner. Twenty‐three women staying at domestic violence and abuse shelters with their children were interviewed about their experiences with assistance services and their everyday life with their children. At the time of the interviews, most of the women were legally separated or divorced and were either living in or in touch daily with shelters. In this paper, we look at some of the challenges that women face when exposed to violence in a relationship that involves children. Being exposed to violence from a partner raises a number of economic, practical, and emotional concerns, both prior to and after leaving. For the mothers in our study, maintaining a regular routine is key to making the children feel safe in an unpredictable setting. For many, economic dependence on the partner is replaced with economic dependence on assistance services after leaving the partner. Services must recognize that providing help to mothers who have left a violent partner constitutes more than just practical support but is crucial for mothers' ability to re‐establish a predictable everyday life with their children.     

Absent presence: the ongoing impact of men's violence on the mother–child relationship

This paper draws from interviews with 45 mothers and 52 children who participated in an action research project to develop activities to support women and children in the aftermath of domestic violence. A thematic analysis was used to analyse the data and explore the question: In what ways does the perpetrator of abuse remain present in the lives of women and children following separation? The paper invites workers to recognize the distortions created by domestic violence that may need to be identified and addressed in the aftermath of violence. The ways in which past trauma, erosion of self‐esteem and the undermining of the mother–child relationship continues to create a shadow across the present relationship are identified. The continued presence of the perpetrator of abuse through child contact arrangements and ongoing harassment is also highlighted. The ‘absent presence’ of the abusive partner is posited as a concept to assist workers with a framework through which to understand problems in the mother–child relationship which emerge when living with and separating from a violent partner. The paper has implications for social workers orientating practice to focus on perpetrator accountability and support strengthening the mother–child relationship.     

Women's abuse of their children in the context on domestic violence: reflection from women's accounts

This paper draws upon the findings of a study that looked at women's experiences of mothering in the context of co-occurrence of domestic violence and child abuse, and considers the issue of women's violence towards children – while acknowledging the fact that men are the main perpetrators of violence towards women and children in these families. The paper first explores the relationship between women's victimization and women's violence, and suggests that women's abuse of their children can be seen as a consequence of their own experiences of domestic violence. The findings nonetheless suggest that abused women have agency, and therefore have responsibilities when they chose to use violence towards their children. The paper also considers the feelings of guilt and blame that tend to arise in these circumstances. Implications for research, policy and practice are identified.     

Safe at home? Housing decisions for women leaving family violence

Internationally, domestic violence policy has shifted towards supporting women to stay at home with the perpetrator of violence excluded. However, the practical realities indicate that this is a complex arena in which the rhetoric of rights for “women and children to stay in their own home” needs to be underpinned by additional support to provide safety and protection for those choosing this option. The current study examines decision making about accommodation options and the role of civil protection orders among 138 women accessing domestic violence support services in Victoria Australia. It shines a light on the intersection between justice responses and the housing needs of women and their children leaving a violent relationship. Our findings reveal that for this sample of women, staying in their own home left them more open to breaches of intervention orders than those who re‐located. In spite of the frequency of breaching, a majority of women believed that they were safer with the protective order in place. We conclude that supporting women to “stay at home” with the perpetrator removed may be a pathway to safety for only a minority of women particularly if support from police and courts is not proactive and reliable.     

PREDICTORS OF WOMEN'S RETURN TO VIOLENT PARTNERS

The study aimed to prospectively assess the variables which predict women's intention to return and actual return to violent partners. A questionnaire was developed and administered to 78 women who were taking refuge in a women's shelter after leaving a violent partner. After a two month period it was determined whether or not the women had returned to their partner. Intention to return was significantly predicted by the frequency and severity of violence, the age of the woman's youngest child, her belief the partner had changed, subjective norms and external locus of control. Actual return was predicted by the intention to return to partner, number of times a women had previously left her partner, commitment to relationship, subjective norms and allocation of responsibility for violence. It was argued that therapeutic interventions that address the attitudinal predictors of intention to return or actual return could aid some women and their children to remain away from a violent living situation.     

Women’s Strategic Responses to Intimate Partner Violence: A Study in a Rural Community of Bangladesh

The objective of this study was to explore women’s strategic responses to physical violence perpetrated by an intimate partner. Twenty women from a rural area of the Narshingdi district in the Dhaka division of Bangladesh who experienced physical violence at home participated in the study. Development of the interview protocol and data analysis were carried out by applying the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method. The results showed that several themes, such as women’s responses to intimate partner violence, arose from the data. First, coping strategies to pre‐violent events included three themes: (i) leaving the scene; (ii) trying to divert attention; and (iii) preparing to protest. Women’s strategic responses to violent events consisted of four themes: (i) leaving the scene; (ii) remaining silent or no giving response; (iii) seeking help from others; and (iv) protesting against the violence. Lastly, women’s strategic responses to post‐violent events consisted of three themes: (i) temporary abstinence; (ii) verbally abusive behavior to family members; and (iii) going to the parental home. Given the findings of this study, we conclude by suggesting that more work is needed to better understand effective strategies and to draw women to institutional services to prevent violence to a greater extent.     

Exploring alternative pathways out of poverty: making connections between domestic violence and employment practices

In this article we report on the research findings from our exploratory study examining connections between Australian responses to two important social issues: domestic violence and employment. Although international literature particularly from North America, comprehensively addresses the connections between domestic violence and employment, there is a paucity of Australian research on this topic. Intrigued by this as both practitioners and researchers, we sought to discover whether the problems, solutions and conclusions addressed internationally were relevant to an Australian context. The result was a unique contribution to Australian knowledge and practice where we demonstrate the applicability of some aspects of North American approaches to Australia and document innovative local practices in the field. In this article we argue for a more comprehensive approach in responses to the connections between domestic violence and employment as an alternative pathway out of poverty for women affected by domestic violence.     

Avoidance and confrontation: social work practice in relation to domestic violence and child abuse

Action on the relationship between domestic violence and child abuse has been slow to emerge in mainstream child protection agencies. This paper reports a qualitative study of child protection files. Particular attention was given to the issues for Asian families. Initially the numerous strategies which social workers and other professionals at child protection conferences used to avoid the issue of domestic violence are explored. However, there was also a small, but emerging, pattern of child abuse in the context of domestic violence being taken seriously. In each of these cases strong expectations were placed on women to separate from or remain separated from men who were violent. These expectations were backed by 'threats' or the actual accommodation of children often with little interagency support for women undertaking this difficult and dangerous task, or before women were ready to undertake this separation. Suggestions are made about aspects of the organizational context which need to change if good child protection is also to include appropriate protection and support for the child's mother.     

The Public Perception of Female and Male Violence in Marital Relationships

Most studies dealing with intimate partner violence (IPV) investigate situations where the man is the aggressor. The present study examines the participants’ social perception of IPV and the connection between social perception and the severity of the violent act and its justification when carried out by men against women and vice versa. The research is based on a structured, self-reported anonymous questionnaire answered by 240 participants. The questionnaire examined demographic variables, attitudes toward IPV, the severity of the violent act, and its justification. Findings indicate that violent behavior of women is perceived as more justified than that of men and that men’s violent behavior is perceived as more severe by women than by men, but women’s violent behavior is perceived to be equally severe by men and women. The study raises awareness of the lack of gender boundaries in violence and of gender discrimination against males.     

Significant harm and children's experiences of domestic violence

This is the first of two papers concerning children and domestic violence, both of which draw on findings from a Department of Health commissioned study of children suffering or likely to suffer significant harm. This paper discusses the ways in which children appear to be harmed by witnessing violence between their parents or parental figures. A brief review is offered of the literature concerning the developmental and behavioural effects on children who have lived with domestic violence. Selected findings from the research study are then discussed. Out of a cohort of 105 maltreated or neglected children, 49 were discovered to be regularly witnessing violence between parents at home. The emotional, social and behavioural effects on 28 children who were studied in detail are presented, through three case studies. Examples are offered of the way in which professionals overlook, discount or downgrade the harm to the child from this hostility. The emotional impact on the child of living with domestic violence rarely forms part of the assessment of significant harm made at the child protection conference; nor does it feature in subsequent plans to protect the child.     

Intimate partner violence and women's experiences of grief

A greater understanding of women's emotional and behavioural responses to intimate partner violence (IPV) may be aided by an examination of the grief course. Women going through the process of leaving their abusers, like women leaving non‐violent partners, experience grief during and at the termination of their relationship, even if they feel relief at the cessation of violence. Through qualitative interviews with 14 female survivors of IPV, we critically examine the utility of Kubler‐Ross' grief model to understand how women come to terms with their experiences of violence and the end of their violent relationships. Results suggest that Kubler‐Ross' model helps explain the emotional reactions and decision‐making of IPV survivors in regard to staying, leaving and returning to their partners. While a model developed to explain grief due to death may not entirely explain the reactions of IPV survivors going through the process of leaving abusive partners, and does not account for psychological reactions to trauma, social workers and mental‐health professionals can use this grief model as a framework to better tailor services to survivors of IPV.     

Risk factors for the prevalence of domestic violence against women in Cyprus

This paper, which is based on the first national survey on domestic violence against women in Cyprus, presents the risk factors associated with the prevalence of domestic violence. The sample size of the survey is 1107 Greek-speaking women living in the area controlled by the Republic of Cyprus. Overall, 28% of the women that took part in the survey report to have suffered domestic violence from their partner or husband at least once in their lives. Multiple logistic regression shows that age, marital status, place of living and family budget are significant risk factors for the prevalence of domestic violence against women in Cyprus.     

Conversations about violence,risk and responsibility with divorced and support-seeking fathers in Sweden

The aim of this paper is to analyse approaches to issues of risk, responsibility and representations of violence in women social workers' conversations with alleged or confirmed violent fathers. The study adds to a growing body of research on agencies' handling of intimate partner violence (IPV) in the context of separation. Empirically, the study draws from 12 structured, audio recorded and transcribed interviews with support-seeking and divorced fathers, from five municipalities in Sweden, conducted as part of a cooperation project in which a risk-detection method (Family Law Detection Of Overall Risk Screen [FL-DOORS]) was also tested. The results suggest a tension between different professional tasks. To validate information on IPV, detect risk and enhance a child perspective competes with other professional projects, most obviously with promoting cooperation between parents. The study confirms previous research, which demonstrates unique challenges facing women social workers and counsellors when working with men as perpetrators. In conclusion, the paper concurs with the call for a focus on responsibility and on safe parenting in professional conversations with allegedly or confirmed abusive fathers.     

Theoretical and Methodological Perspectives on Domestic Violence: Implications for Social Action

Theoretical and methodological paradigms used by researchers and applied workers to conceptualise domestic violence are examined, with particular emphasis on the implications for social action. It is argued that the gender assumptions underlying the theoretical framework adopted are often implicit, unacknowledged, and that when they assume equal power between men and women may do a disservice to female victims. We maintain that the consequence of discrepant approaches of professionals encountering domestic violence is insufficient dialogue between researchers and applied workers, reducing the potential for effective social remedy. Some resolutions of this dilemma are proposed; specifically, these concern the adoption of feminist paradigms, the importance of making victims more visible, and empowering women to overcome violent oppression.     

"Bessie done cut her old man": race, common-law marriage, and homicide in New Orleans, 1925-1945

This essay examines domestic homicide in early twentieth-century New Orleans. African-American residents killed their domestic partners at eight times the rate of white New Orleanians, and these homicides were most often committed by women, who killed their partners at fifteen times the rate of white women. Common-law marriages proved to be especially violent among African-American residents. Based on nearly two hundred cases identified in police records and other sources as partner killings between 1925 and 1945, this analysis compares lethal violence in legal marriages and in common-law unions. It also explores the social and institutional forces that buffeted common-law marriages, making this the most violent domestic arrangement and contributing to the remarkably high rate of spousal homicide by African-American women in early twentieth-century New Orleans.     

“We are not weak,we just experience domestic violence”—Immigrant women's experiences of encounters with service providers as a result of domestic violence

Domestic violence continues to be a serious social problem and represents a challenge for those who are exposed to it and those in public services. In Norway, a variety of services are provided to help victims of domestic violence and improve knowledge among professionals who meet with adults and children exposed to domestic violence. Studies in Norway show that families with immigrant backgrounds are overrepresented among social service users as a result of domestic violence. However, contextualized knowledge to provide background information about this overrepresentation is limited. This paper explores women's need for support and their experience with service providers when faced with difficult and unpredictable situations, namely, escaping from violence and leaving home with no financial resources or limited supportive network and turning to service providers for support. Qualitative interviews were conducted with 18 women who were staying in or were in touch with shelters with their children or alone. Five central themes emerged in the analysis of these interviews: (a) help becoming a burden; (b) timely economic measures; (c) economic support and domestic violence; (d) displaced focus; and (e) flexibility and the victim's background.     

A Review of Research on Welfare and Domestic Violence

In this article we review the growing body of research literature on domestic violence and welfare. We summarize and critique the existing research on domestic violence and welfare in several areas: prevalence of domestic violence among women receiving welfare; the relationship of domestic violence to theiremployment; and physical health and mental health, child support, andevaluations of policies and programs. We also raise some methodological concerns that can inform interpretation of existing data. We examine the relevance of the research for practice and policy, particularly for the implementation of the Family Violence Option. This review includes published research as well as unpublished studies presented at recent conferences.     

新视域下的家庭暴力及其成因探索

迈入新世纪,家庭暴力的内涵和特征也发生了相应的变化。从广义上讲,家庭暴力不仅指在有婚姻关系、身份关系的生活共同体中出现的暴力行为,而且还包括同居关系及婚姻关系终止后出现的暴力行为,如“事实家庭”、“同性恋家庭”、“离异家庭”、“准家庭”成员之间的暴力行为;从狭义上讲,特指发生在上述广义家庭中对女性所实施的一切暴力和虐待行为。对此,尝试用一种新的视域(宗教、社会和两性冲突等)来探讨家庭暴力的成因,对于增进妇女权益,维护家庭稳定和社会和谐具有积极的意义。     

‘He didn't mean to hit mom,I think’: positioning,agency and point in adolescents' narratives about domestic violence

This paper analyses the narratives of adolescents who have experienced domestic violence. It focuses on what we can learn about being an adolescent who experiences domestic violence, using a narrative approach. Attentive to both form and content, the paper sheds light on why the narrative is being told, who the actors in the narratives are, who are positioned in the forefront/background and what the point of the narrative is. The analysis shows that through the storytelling, the father's position as the reluctant/dangerous/weak aggressor is negotiated, the mother is positioned both in the background as a victim and in the forefront as an actor resisting his violent behaviour. The children position themselves as actors with power to alter the progress, to protect and stop the violence. The point of the narratives is to describe the father as the aggressor, and to describe the important role of the children. This picture of the father, mother and child questions the traditional understanding of the father as the aggressor, the mother as the victim and the child as a powerless bystander being exposed to the violence, and underlines the complexities of the dynamics in families living with domestic violence.     

Women's safety service within the Integrated Domestic Abuse Programme: perceptions of service users

This paper draws on the findings of a qualitative evaluation that examines women's perceptions of the services provided to them whilst their abusers attended an Integrated Domestic Violence Programme (IDAP) in one probation area in the UK. Research focusing on domestic violence programmes has mostly concentrated on the experiences of male perpetrators. As a result, less is known about how women feel about such programmes and the parallel safety services they are supposed to receive. This research seeks to address that weakness by exploring the perceptions of 13 women whose abusers are attending one perpetrator programme. The findings of our study suggest that women are generally negative about perpetrator programmes and require more comprehensive and coordinated services than are routinely made available to them. The paper suggests that women value and need direct and assertive support as well as safety services, and this need is especially pronounced in rural contexts where women can be isolated from mainstream services. The implications of the research to practice with victims of domestic violence are discussed to inform further development of IDAP and similar programmes in the UK and beyond.