性别模式与性别平等

引言 性别的平权化轰轰烈烈了将近两个世纪,无论是一轮高过一轮的西方女权运动,还是新中国建国后动用行政力量对男女不平等的干预,至少有一点是共同的,即人们都认为,性别不平等的罪魁祸首是传统的性别模式,只有打破它,才能实现男女平等.但是,无论西方还是我国,不仅性别平等问题难以得到根本解决(虽然在社会事实上性别平等已经大大提高),反而又产生了各种各样的问题,特别是使人们的性别角色认同和实践上发生了混乱.     

对母亲社会性别的思考

在传统话语中，母亲指有德妇女，与伟大、善良、牺牲、慈爱相连；女人是小的、弱的、可被轻贱的、可生灾祸的，与色相连。母亲与女人通过“尊母”与“小女人”的表达方式被分离了，这种分离是创建女性话语的最大困难。     

性别隐匿的赛伯空间

新技术的出现总是会挑战现有的社会结构 ,因为它引入了新的社会关系准则 ;技术革新也会打断常规的发展进程 ,引发问题和困惑。如同电话、广播、电视等电子传播媒体的出现曾引起人们的广泛关注与讨论 ,将上述媒体统统变成传统媒体的因特网 ,更引起人们的关注和思索。关于因特网的神话很多 :匿名性、交互性、实时性、跨时空……。上述特征使得网上人们的行动方式与现实社会中互动大不相同。在基于性别互动的面对面（Ｆ２Ｆ）世界中 ,性别是影响人们的认知、态度和行为的一个重要因素。不幸的是 ,这些认识常常对妇女不利从而削弱了她们对社会的…     

Gender and Social Work: Will Dip. S.W. make a difference?

Correspondence to Moira Kirwan, Gateside House, Hill Road, Gullane, East Lothian EH31 2BE. Summary With the publication of Paper 30 (CCETSW 1991) and the developmentof Dip.S.W. programmes which incorporate a strong emphasis onequal opportunities, it might be reasonable to expect that socialwork training is now going to take on board the issue of gender.Dip.S.W. programmes are immersed in concerns about anti-discriminatorypractice and aim to provide up-to-date training for an up-to-dateprofession. This paper is based on a study of the Dip. S.W.programmes running in Scotland in 1991/92. This was when thefirst Dip.S.W. qualified social workers emerged from the newtraining. Do these social workers have a new way of lookingat issues such as gender? This paper argues that the Dip.S.W.programmes are focusing on practice issues while ignoring theissues within the profession. Practice issues cannot be separatedout in this way. Social work cannot be anti-oppressive as longas the social work profession itself continues to oppress itsfemale workforce. Dip.S.W., as it is currently provided, doesnot offer the prospect of a change in the gender imbalance ofthe profession and thus it will not make a difference to howemerging Dip.S.W. social workers can tackle the issue with colleaguesor clients.     

计算机游戏与性别关系——性别研究的新领域

随着计算机和网络技术的普及，计算机游戏正成为现代社会文化中一个不可忽视的组成部分。它不仅对青少年，而且对成年人也有着重要影响，尤其是对于性别角色期待、性别角色扮演以及性别刻板印象的强化或淡化方面更有着明显的影响。自20世纪90年代以来,计算机游戏的内容及其对于女性掌握数字技术的影响已成为国外一些学者关心的问题。     

Gender and the Internet

Objective. This article examines whether there are differences in men's and women's use of the Internet and whether any such gender gaps have changed in recent years. Methods. We use data from several surveys during the period 1997–2001 to show trends in Internet usage and to estimate regression models of Internet usage that control for individuals' socioeconomic characteristics. Results. Women were significantly less likely than men to use the Internet at all in the mid–1990s, but this gender gap in being online disappeared by 2000. However, once online, women remain less frequent and less intense users of the Internet. Conclusions. There is little reason for concern about sex inequalities in Internet access and usage now, but gender differences in frequency and intensity of Internet usage remain.     

Gender and Social Influence

This review article reveals that men are generally more influential than women, although the gender difference depends on several moderators. Relative to men, women are particularly less influential when using dominant forms of communication, whereas the male advantage in influence is reduced in domains that are traditionally associated with the female role and in group settings in which more than one woman or girl is present. Males in particular resist influence by women and girls more than females do, especially when influence agents employ highly competent styles of communication. Resistance to competent women can be reduced, however, when women temper their competence with displays of communality and warmth.     

Gender,risk and stereotypes

This paper reports results from an economic experiment where respondents are asked to make choices between risky outcomes for themselves and others. We investigate whether subjects’ own risk preferences and gender stereotypes are reflected in the predictions they make for the risk preferences of others and the way this occurs. When predicting other people’s risk preferences, the respondents tend to use a combination of their own risk preferences and stereotypes. Moreover, when making risky choices for others, the respondents generally use a combination of their own risk preferences and their average predicted risk preference of the targeted group.

Gender and Illicit Drug Use

Correspondence to Dr Joanne Neale, Department of Social Policy and Social Work, University of York, Heslington, York Y010 5DD, UK. E-mail: jsn3{at}york.ac.uk Summary There has been no recent large-scale systematic UK investigationof differences between male and female drug users seeking treatment.Equally, there has been no debate within the social work fieldregarding how best to address any gender-specific needs of drug-usingclients. This is despite the fact that social workers frequentlywork with both drug-dependent individuals and members of theirfamilies. This paper examines differences between men and womenbeginning a new episode of drug treatment in Scotland and considerssome of the implications of the findings for social work practice.Data were collected from structured interviews conducted with1,033 individuals (715 males and 318 females) in a range oftreatment settings. Chi-square statistics were computed to investigatesex differences on key categorical variables relating to: (i)patterns of drug use; (ii) education, employment and income;(iii) offending behaviour; (iv) housing circumstances; (v) healthstatus; and (vi) personal relationships. Analyses identifiedmany differences between the men and women interviewed, butalso many common difficulties faced by respondents of both sexes.Additionally, the extensive range of problems and stressfullife circumstances encountered suggested that the lives of individualsseeking drug treatment were extremely heterogeneous. It is concludedthat social workers can employ a range of practical interventionsand theoretical approaches when working with both male and femaledrug-using clients.     

Real Versus Imagined Gender Harassment

Sexual harassment studies that use hypothetical situations and retrospective surveys may overestimate the degree to which victims actually confront their harassers. The result is that immediate emotional reactions are little understood and victims are often taken to task for nonconfrontational behavior. To address this neglect, we describe our experimental investigation of immediate reactions to sexually harassing questions encountered during a realistic job interview. Behavioral and emotional responses are compared to those in an imagined harassing interview. Results indicate that interviewees who are actually harassed react very differently than those who only imagine their responses. For example, imagined victims anticipate feeling angry but actual targets report being afraid. Anticipated behavior also did not mesh with actual behavior. Implications of these discrepancies for perceptions of "correct" ways to respond to harassment are examined.     

Gender Justice or Just Gender? The Role of Gender in Sexual Assault Decisions at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia*

Objective. This article examines gender justice at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) by analyzing sexual assault cases and the impact that gender composition has on sentencing outcomes. Methods. We employ regression analysis to explain the impact of male and female jurists as decisionmakers and the subsequent outcomes rendered for victims. Results. We find that gender is a determinate factor in sentencing outcomes, and that female judges have a distinctive role that varies depending on the gender of the victim in the case. Conclusion. Contrary to criticisms that the ICTY has not provided justice for victims in sexual assault cases, we find support for the exact opposite. Sentencing disparities indicate that female jurists more severely sanction defendants who assault women, while all male panels of judges do the same for male victims.     

The Politics of Race and Gender: Children's Perceptions of Discrimination and the U.S. Presidency

In the year prior to Hillary Clinton's and Barack Obama's bids to become the Democratic nominee for the U.S. presidency, we explored children's views about the role of race and gender in the U.S. presidency, with a specific focus on perceptions of discrimination. Specifically, we examined children's (aged 5 to 10) knowledge of and attributions for the lack of female (Study 1, N = 76), African American (Study 2, N = 64), and Latino (Study 3, N = 65) presidents. Results indicated that children are knowledgeable about the gender, race, and ethnicity of past presidents, and that many children attribute the lack of female, African American, and Latino presidents to gender and racial discrimination. Theoretical and policy implications of the work are discussed.     

Suzi and Mr. S.: Gender role stereotyping in social workers' court reports in custody and access cases.

This paper analyzes the “gender strategies” of a sample of Israeli women social workers as evidenced in the recommendations that they write for the courts on custody and visiting rights for divorcing couples. Textual analysis of these reports reveals what Hochchild terms a “traditional gender strategy,” manifested in a consistent pattern of gender stereotyping. There are clear differences in the way the social workers present the husband and wife as persons, both separately and in relation to one another, and in the roles that they expect them to fulfill, with the man being assigned the provider role and the woman the parent role. Even the way they collect information about the two parents' relationships with their children is different. The paper concludes with a discussion of the practical implications of the findings.     

Gender, Ethnicity, and Power

Group-based power is generally associated with three types of group distinctions: adult-child, gender, and ethnicity. We argue that gender-based power is not comparable to ethnic-based power, in part because the forms and degree of institutional discrimination experienced by men and women of subordinate ethnic groups are not similar to one another, and in part because stereotypes and categorization processes pertaining to gender are not comparable across ethnic groups. Finally, in experiments using college students as participants, we show that whether applicants are placed into occupations that would enhance or attenuate group-based inequality depends jointly on job applicants' ethnicity and gender. Implications for theories of inequality based on gender and ethnicity and the relationship of gendered power to other group-based forms of power are discussed.     

Gender, Status, and Leadership

More than a trait of individuals, gender is an institutionalized system of social practices. The gender system is deeply entwined with social hierarchy and leadership because gender stereotypes contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women. This review uses expectation states theory to describe how gender status beliefs create a network of constraining expectations and interpersonal reactions that is a major cause of the "glass ceiling." In mixed-sex or gender-relevant contexts, gender status beliefs shape men's and women's assertiveness, the attention and evaluation their performances receive, ability attributed to them on the basis of performance, the influence they achieve, and the likelihood that they emerge as leaders. Gender status beliefs also create legitimacy reactions that penalize assertive women leaders for violating the expected status order and reduce their ability to gain complaince with directives.