Home range and habitat use of feral cats in an urban mosaic in Pietermaritzburg,KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

Feral cats (Felis catus) are one of the world’s worst invasive species with continuing expanding populations, particularly in urban areas. Effects of anthropogenic changing land-use, especially urbanisation, can alter distribution and behaviour of feral cats. Additionally, resource availability can influence home range and habitat use. Therefore, we investigated home range and habitat use of feral cats (n?=?11) in an urban mosaic with varying degrees of urbanisation and green spaces in Pietermaritzburg, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Using global positioning cellular trackers, individual feral cats were followed for a minimum of six months. Minimum convex polygons (MCP) and kernel density estimates (KDE) were used to determine their home range, core area size, and habitat use. Mean home range (± SE) for feral cats was relatively small (95% MCP 6.2?±?4.52 ha) with no significant difference between male and female home ranges, nor core areas. There was individual variation in home ranges despite supplemental feeding in the urban mosaic. Generally supplemental resources were the primary driver of feral cat home ranges where these feeding sites were within the core areas of individuals. However, the ecological consequences of feeding feral cats can increase their survival, and reduce their home ranges and movement as found in other studies.     

Analyzing the pattern and connectivity of urban green spaces: A case study of Izmir, Turkey

The primary concerns in this study were to quantify the connectivity and green space pattern using landscape metrics (PLAND, NP, AREA_MN and CONNECT) in the central districts of the city of Izmir. The primary research materials included thirteen 1:25,000 scale standard topographical maps and IKONOS satellite image with 1 m resolution. The PLAND scores revealed that while the urban fabric occupied almost 26 % of the study area, the urban green spaces covered only 1.45 %. This was also the lowest score in proportion to the areas of other land-use/cover classes. Furthermore, the results of NP and MPS indicated that the configuration of urban green spaces was very patchy and highly fragmented. Likewise, using CONNECT, the overall connectivity score of urban green spaces was 0.12, which was the lowest score of all areas measured the metrics. The Güzelbahçe district seemed to hold the most promise for connectivity, with a CONNECT score of 3.75. On the other hand, the Bornova district presented the least promising case in terms of connectivity, with a score of 0.59. In the study area, the correlations between the size of the districts/built-up areas and the CONNECT scores of the urban green spaces were found to be “non-significant” (P?<?0.01). The ultimate goals were to increase the amount of systematically planned urban green spaces and set up a green infrastructure in Izmir. In the case of Izmir, a master planning approach, which uses a systematic and comprehensive method to guide urban green spaces, is necessary to develop planning and design strategies for fully functional and multi-purpose urban green space systems.     

Annual and seasonal habitat use of Columbian black-tailed deer in urban Vancouver, Washington

We investigated habitat use of Columbian black-tailed deer in urban Vancouver, Clark County, Washington, at 3 spatial scales: (1) placement of the annual home range within the landscape mosaic, (2) annual and seasonal locations of deer within the annual home range, and (3) short-term use of critical habitats (fawning areas) within seasonal ranges. Annual home range sizes of deer were 162 ha (SD = 133; 95% minimum convex polygon; MCP) and 266 ha (SD = 228; 95% adaptive kernel; AK) for does, and 756 ha (SD = 290; MCP) and 1,235 ha (SD = 382; AK) for bucks. Home range composition of does did not differ from the study area; home ranges of bucks contained more Natural ecological land-use cover types (ELUs) than did the study area. Within home ranges, both does and bucks used Natural ELUs more often than expected by their occurrence in the home range, both annually and seasonally. During the fawning season, does were also found in Natural ELUs more often than expected. Clark County-designated habitat corridors differed from both the study area and deer home ranges in habitat composition, primarily by containing more Natural and other undeveloped ELUs. Deer were located in habitat corridors more than expected. Deer in urban areas appear to use undeveloped habitat types for security. Management that maintains Natural ELUs, such as establishment of wildlife corridors, can provide important habitat components for black-tailed deer in urban habitats.     

Woody plant species richness,composition and structure in urban sacred sites,Grahamstown, South Africa

Sacred sites are important not only for their traditional, spiritual or religious significance, but may also potentially be valuable for biodiversity conservation in human transformed landscapes. Yet, there has been little consideration of sacred sites in urban areas in this respect. Consequently, to better understand the ecosystem service and conservation value of urban sacred sites, inventories of their floral communities are needed. We examined the richness, composition and structure of the trees and shrubs in 35 urban churchyards and cemeteries in the City of Saints (Grahamstown). The combined area of urban sacred sites (38.7 ha) represented 2.2% of the city area and 13.6% of the public green space area. Species richness of woody plants was high, albeit dominated by non-native species. Levels of similarity among sites were low, indicating the effects of individual management regimens. There was no relationship between age of the site and measured attributes of the vegetation, nor were there any significant differences in vegetation among different religious denominations. However, the basal area and number of woody plants was significantly related to site size. These results indicate the significant heterogeneity of urban sacred sites as green spaces within the urban matrix. The significance of this heterogeneity in providing ecosystem services to users of sacred sites and the broader urban communities requires further investigation.     

Size matters: vegetation patch size and surface temperature relationship in foothills cities of northwestern Argentina

Urbanization is one of the most extreme forms of land alteration. Energy fluxes are severely affected and cities tend to have the Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon, although vegetated areas inside cities could have a positive effect in mitigating UHI effect. Our main objective was to analyze the relationship between vegetation characteristics, patch size and land surface temperature (LST) in three urban areas of northwestern Argentina. We selected 38 green spaces of different size distributed in four cities, all located in the eastern foothills of the subtropical mountain forests. We used Landsat TM satellite images to calculate Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and LST. We assessed the net effect of patch size on LST by computing a Difference Temperature Index. At the regional scale, our results showed that vegetation patch size had a direct effect on reducing the LST of the green space. At a local scale, the analysis of the relationship between vegetation on urban green spaces and LST along a gradient of urbanization showed that green spaces with more vegetation tends to reduce LST. The results showed that largest green spaces were between 1.5 and 2.8 °C cooler than the surrounding built. In order to mitigate the UHI effect in cities, larger green spaces appear to be a possible solution.     

Spatial configurations of urban forest in different landscape and socio-political contexts: identifying patterns for green infrastructure planning

Rapid urbanisation and climate change have motivated the development of urban green infrastructure (UGI) as a planning strategy to support the wellbeing of urban people and ecosystems while parallel adapting cities to climate change. Forest (tree-covered areas >0.5 ha) is a key UGI component that afford a wider range of ecosystem services and mitigate urban heat islands more effectively than non-wooded green spaces. However, understanding of spatial configurations (variation in patch size and frequency) of forests across the gradient of urbanisation and between cities is limited to case studies. This represents a considerable knowledge gap for identification of general patterns that can inform integration of forest resources in UGI planning that have value beyond the individual city level. In this study we used Geographic Information Systems to explore the spatial configuration of forests across cities located within landscapes characterised by different levels of anthropogenic modification (degree of forest cover) and socio-political contexts, i.e. all Danish and Swedish cities >10,000 inhabitants (n = 176). We applied general linear modelling to investigate the relationship between forest cover, patch size and frequency with 1) regional landscape type, 2) demographic trends 1960–2010, and 3) the gradient of urbanisation (measured in three zones: urban core (0.2 km from city boundary), urban fringe (0.2–2 km), and urban periphery (2–5 km)). Regardless of demographic trends, forest cover was lowest in cities settled in large-scale agricultural regions, higher in regions with mosaics of forest and farming, and highest in forest-dominated regions. However, in all cities forest cover was lowest in the urban zone and peaked on the urban fringe rather than on the urban periphery. Furthermore, pocket woods (0.5–2 ha) accounted for over 50 % of patches in all three urban zones, irrespective of regional landscape type. We conclude by discussing how these general patterns could inform strategies for integration of urban forests in UGI planning.     

Adaptive governance to promote ecosystem services in urban green spaces

Managing urban green space as part of an ongoing social-ecological transformation poses novel governance issues, particularly in post-industrial settings. Urban green spaces operate as small-scale nodes in larger networks of ecological reserves that provide and maintain key ecosystem services such as pollination, water retention and infiltration, and sustainable food production. In an urban mosaic, a myriad of social and ecological components factor into aggregating and managing land to maintain or increase the flow of ecosystem services associated with green spaces. Vacant lots (a form of urban green space) are being repurposed for multiple functions, such as habitat for biodiversity, including arthropods that provide pollination services to other green areas; to capture urban runoff that eases the burden on ageing wastewater systems and other civic infrastructure; and to reduce urban heat island effects. Because of the uncertainty and complexities of managing for ecosystem services in urban settings, we advocate for a governance approach that is adaptive and iterative in nature—adaptive governance—to address the ever changing social order underlying post-industrial cities and offer the rise of land banks as an example of governance innovation.     

Survival,abundance, and capture rate of eastern cottontail rabbits in an urban park

Eastern cottontail rabbits (Sylvilagus floridanus) are common, conspicuous denizens of urban environments. They are associated with human-wildlife conflict due to vegetation damage. Prior to this study, population dynamics of this species in urban environments remained largely uncharacterized. For three consecutive winters, we used classic field ecology methods (mark-recapture and mark–resight surveys) to estimate demographic parameters of rabbits in a city park in Chicago, Illinois. Rabbits occurred in densities as high as 16.3 rabbits/ha, which is comparatively high for the Midwestern United States. An annual survivorship of 30.4?±?12.9 % SE was similar to that observed in natural environments in similar climates. This result refuted our hypothesis that urban rabbits would have higher annual survival rates than rabbits in natural settings due to food subsidies supplied by landscaping in parks. Mean distance between trap locations for rabbits trapped three or more times was 43.14?±?30.01 m SD, suggesting that rabbits in the urban study area had smaller home ranges than rabbits in non-human-dominated habitats. This study contributes to our understanding of population dynamics of a human-wildlife conflict species in urban environments and provides useful information for managers dealing with damage caused by rabbits. The mark-resight method employed here could be used by managers to estimate pre- and post-management population sizes of other conflict species, for example Canada geese (Branta Canadensis), in parks and green spaces, provided that the species is trappable, visible, and individuals have relatively small home ranges.     

Urban biodiversity hotspots are not related to the structure of green spaces: a case study of tenebrionid beetles from Rome,Italy

At global and regional scales, area prioritisation is frequently done by the identification of hotspots based on species extinction risk. The logic of the hotspot identification has never been used in urban contexts. In this paper, the tenebrionid beetles (Coleoptera Tenebrionidae) of urban Rome were studied as an exercise to show how the hotspot approach can be profitably used in an urban area to identify priority areas for biodiversity conservation. For this, tenebrionid species from 16 green spaces were scored according to their vulnerability on the basis of their geographical distribution, habitat specificity and abundance. Species vulnerability scores were then used to calculate two indices of area prioritisation (the Biodiversity Conservation Concern and the Biodiversity Conservation Weight) for each green space. Values of these indices were correlated with site characteristics and compared with those obtained from other, more natural contexts. Except for distance to other sites, no significant correlation was found between conservation values and site characteristics, which indicates that the conservation importance of green spaces cannot be predicted on the basis of their geographical characteristics, but must be established on the basis of the species that they actually host. The importance of urban green spaces for biodiversity conservation may be questioned because of the large presence of ubiquitous and alien species in urban areas. Conservation values obtained for tenebrionids of green spaces in Rome are similar to those of various animal groups in more natural contexts and hence highlight the actual importance of green areas for insect biodiversity conservation.     

Ecological consequences of fragmentation and deforestation in an urban landscape: a case study

Landscape change is an ongoing process even within established urban landscapes. Yet, analyses of fragmentation and deforestation have focused primarily on the conversion of non-urban to urban landscapes in rural landscapes and ignored urban landscapes. To determine the ecological effects of continued urbanization in urban landscapes, tree-covered patches were mapped in the Gwynns Falls watershed (17158.6?ha) in Maryland for 1994 and 1999 to document fragmentation, deforestation, and reforestation. The watershed was divided into lower (urban core), middle (older suburbs), and upper (recent suburbs) subsections. Over the entire watershed a net of 264.5 of 4855.5?ha of tree-covered patches were converted to urban land use??125 new tree-covered patches were added through fragmentation, 4 were added through reforestation, 43 were lost through deforestation, and 7 were combined with an adjacent patch. In addition, 180 patches were reduced in size. In the urban core, deforestation continued with conversion to commercial land use. Because of the lack of vegetation, commercial land uses are problematic for both species conservation and derived ecosystem benefits. In the lower subsection, shape complexity increased for tree-covered patches less than 10?ha. Changes in shape resulted from canopy expansion, planted materials, and reforestation of vacant sites. In the middle and upper subsections, the shape index value for tree-covered patches decreased, indicating simplification. Density analyses of the subsections showed no change with respect to patch densities but pointed out the importance of small patches (??5?ha) as ??stepping stone?? to link large patches (e.g., >100?ha). Using an urban forest effect model, we estimated, for the entire watershed, total carbon loss and pollution removal, from 1994 to 1999, to be 14,235,889.2?kg and 13,011.4?kg, respectively due to urban land-use conversions.     

Ranging characteristics of the domestic cat (Felis catus) in an urban environment

In many countries, high densities of domestic cats (Felis catus) are found in urban habitats where they have the potential to exert considerable predation pressure on their prey. However, little is known of the ranging behaviour of cats in the UK. Twenty cats in suburban Reading, UK, were fitted with GPS trackers to quantify movement patterns. Cats were monitored during the summer and winter for an average of 6.8 24 h periods per season. Mean daily area ranged (95 % MCP) was 1.94 ha. Including all fixes, mean maximum area ranged was 6.88 ha. These are broadly comparable to those observed in urban areas in other countries. Daily area ranged was not affected by the cat’s sex or the season, but was significantly larger at night than during the day. There was no relationship between area ranged and habitat availability. Taking available habitat into account, cat ranging area contained significantly more garden and other green space than urban habitats. If cats were shown to be negatively affecting prey populations, one mitigation option for consideration in housing developments proposed near important wildlife sites would be to incorporate a ‘buffer zone’ in which cat ownership was not permitted. Absolute maximum daily area ranged by a cat in this study was 33.78 ha. This would correspond to an exclusory limit of approximately 300–400 m to minimise the negative effects of cat predation, but this may need to be larger if cat ranging behaviour is negatively affected by population density.     

The influence of anthropogenic resources on multi-scale habitat selection by raccoons

With the continuing spread of urban areas, gaining a greater understanding of the effect of human presence on wildlife species is essential for wildlife managers. We determined the influence of anthropogenic resources on home range size and habitat selection of raccoons (Procyon lotor) during summer (June–August) 1996–2000 for 120 raccoons at three sites exposed to varying levels of urbanization and anthropogenic resources, specifically food. Home range estimates were larger (P < 0.05) at the rural site than the suburban and urban sites for both genders. We used compositional analysis to examine raccoon habitat selection at the second-order home range, second-order core area, and third-order home range scales. Woodland was consistently a highly-selected habitat type for both sexes at every spatial scale. Relative to other habitat types, habitat associated with human-related food (human use areas) was selected most often at the urban site, intermediately at the suburban site, and not selected at the rural site. Spatial scale also affected habitat selection. Human use areas were preferentially selected at the second- and third-order level at the urban site, third-order level only at the suburban site, and at neither level at the rural site. Additionally, intersexual differences in habitat selection were reduced at the urban site, with both sexes preferentially selecting for human use areas as well as woodland habitat. Smaller home ranges in urbanized environments are often attributed to the abundant and concentrated anthropogenic resources associated with human activity, but with little empirical support. Our habitat selection analyses followed our predictions that raccoon foraging is strongly influenced by the artificial distribution and abundance of human-related food. Male and female raccoons in urban areas reduce their foraging patterns and focus their foraging activity on anthropogenic foods.     

City-wide relationships between green spaces,urban land use and topography

The growing proportion of human populations living in urban areas, and consequent trends of increasing urban expansion and densification fuel a need to understand how urban form and land use affect environmental quality, including the availability of urban green spaces. Here we use Sheffield as a case study of city-wide relationships between urban green space extent, quality (vegetation cover and tree-cover), and gradients in urban form and topography. The total area of buildings and length of the road network are equally strong negative predictors of extent of green space, while the former predictor is a more important negative influence upon green space quality. Elevation positively influences extent of green space but negatively influences tree-cover. In contrast, slope of terrain positively influences green space quality and is the best predictor of tree-cover. Overall housing density is a more important negative predictor of extent of green space and tree-cover than the densities of individual housing types. Nevertheless, the latter are more important influences upon levels of vegetation cover. Threshold effects of densities of different housing types suggest opportunities for optimising green space quality, with implications for housing policy. Variation in ecological quality of green space may partly reflect different historical intensities of industrial activity.     

Variability of bumblebee communities (Apidae,Bombini) in urban green areas

Based on current research the agglomerations are potentially desirable habitats for bumblebees. However, the relationship between the biodiversity of these bees and the green areas where they live is poorly understood. The aim of the study was to estimate the influence of green areas (ranging from 8 to 102 ha) of big cities on bumblebee species richness, composition, and the relative number of these insects. The studies were conducted within the administrative borders of the city of Wroc?aw (Poland) in 2011–2012 in 12 green areas such as parks, cemeteries and other places with trees and shrubs. Species richness and abundance of bumblebees was determined by direct observation during 30 min. The gathered materials were used to calculate how areas of urban green space affected qualitative and quantitative bumblebee community structure. In total, 13 species of bumblebees (Bombus Latr.) were recorded, of which 3 belonged to cuckoo bumblebees (Psithyrus subgenus). The share of the most similar groups was congregated in green areas not smaller than 30 ha. This was proved by analysis of qualitative structure (Sørensen index), quantitative structure (Renkonen index), and qualitative-quantitative structure (Cody’s index). The number of bumblebee species in the surveyed green areas (r = 0.7497) was decisive for the arrangement of the mutual similarity of group structure. Green urban areas should be created in a size of at least 30 ha. Such sites provide conditions for the most diversified bumblebee species communities. Sites smaller than 30 ha can play an important role as refuges, and allow migration to all pollinators.     

Ecosystem services assessment of the urban forests of Addis Ababa,Ethiopia

Addis Ababa is a highland city with varied topography and landscape features. The mountains that surround the city are covered with urban forest of different types. These forests are providing various ecosystem services for the urban and peri-urban population of the city. Apart from surface temperature regulating function of the green spaces of Addis Ababa, no quantitative assessment of the carbon sequestration and soil protection ecosystem services provided by the urban forest has been conducted to date. The aim of this study was to assess selected ecosystem services such as carbon storage potential, habitat support and soil erosion protection provided by different categories of urban forest of Addis Ababa. The result showed that carbon density in the study area varied with forest categories viz. 293tons/ha, 142tons/ha and 132tons/ha in the dense, medium and open forest types respectively. The Shannon-Wiener diversity index is3.24 for Junipers dominated forest, 2.98 for mixed forest and 2.76 for Eucalyptus dominated forest. The formation of soil erosion features is significantly different among the Eucalyptus forest, Juniperus forest and Mixed forest where high incidence of soil erosion was recorded in the Eucalyptus forest. Therefore, irrespective of the environmental factors such as slope, aspect and elevation differences, there is an association between Eucalyptus forest cover and high soil erosion features. To ensure sustainable supply of ecosystem services and maintain a balanced urban environment, all green spaces in the city should be ecologically networked and diversified. Therefore, assessment of ecosystem services provided essential information for effective planning of the green space in terms of species composition and interconnectivity.     

Common factors influence bee foraging in urban and wildland landscapes

Bees are important flower-visiting insects that display differential occurrences at food resources throughout urban and wildland landscapes. This study examined the visitation rates and foraging patterns of eight taxonomic groups of bees that are common to California poppies, Eschscholzia californica, in both landscape types. Bee occurrence was documented in relation to floral resource characteristics (patch area, poppy coverage, and poppy density), local landscape characteristics (distance to the wildland-urban interface, distance to riparian areas, distance to green space, and land use), and regional landscape context (urban versus wildland). Similar abundance and richness measures were recorded at both urban and wildland poppy patches, but community composition varied in each landscape. Bumble bees were more abundant at poppies in the wildland whereas species in the family Halictidae (sweat bees) were more abundant at poppies within the urban landscape. Resource patch size and density consistently correlated with increased bee presence for all bee types foraging in the wildland. Individual patterns of occurrence in the urban landscape were somewhat divergent; the foraging dynamics of larger bodied-bees (Bombus vosnesenskii and Megachile species) correlated significantly with resource patch size and density, whereas smaller-bodied bees (family Halictidae and Andrena species) were influenced by landscape characteristics such as distance to the wildland-urban interface and distance to riparian areas. In summary, the surrounding landscape had an influence on community composition, but the magnitude of the floral resource present at a site and factors relating to foraging energetics were dominant drivers of local occurrence. These results suggest that management strategies that provide dense and abundant floral resources should be successful in attracting bees, irrespective of their location within the urban matrix.     

Relation between green spaces and bird community structure in an urban area in Southeast Brazil

Increased urbanization typically leads to an increase in abundance of a few species and a reduction in bird species richness. Understanding the structure of biotic communities in urban areas will allow us to propose management techniques and to decrease conflicts between wild species and human beings. The objective of this study was to describe the structure of the bird community in an urban ecosystem. The study was carried out in the city of Taubaté in southeastern Brazil. Point-counts were established in areas with different levels of tree density ranging from urban green spaces to predominantly built-up areas. We looked for a correlation between the richness/abundance of birds and the size of the area surveyed, the number of houses, the number of tree species and the number of individual trees. The results of multiple regression showed that bird richness had a direct relationship with vegetation complexity. The abundance and diversity of tree species were better predictors of bird species than the number of houses and size of the area surveyed. We discuss implications of this study for conservation and management of bird diversity in urban areas, such as the need to increase green areas containing a large diversity of native plant species.     

Functional connectivity in urban landscapes promoted by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ramphastos toco</Emphasis> (Toco Toucan) and its implications for policy making

The scarcity of green areas in urban landscapes hinders connectivity among sites reducing the flux of organisms and seed dispersal. Ramphastos toco is an effective plant disperser in tropical landscapes, playing an important role in conserving plant connectivity. In this study we combined two methods of landscape connectivity analysis, in a way not yet explored, to assess the potential contribution of Ramphastos toco to enhancing connectivity among urban vegetation patches. We used spatial modeling techniques to evaluate least cost routes, or those that facilitate bird movement through green urban areas, in Belo Horizonte, a city in Southeast Brazil. We also assessed the relative importance of forest patches for conserving both bird and seed dispersal fluxes using the integral index of connectivity. The resulting least cost route of greater accessibility for the species included in its course an important forest patch under environmental licensing for the construction of a residential condominium. The number of green urban areas covered by forest, of highest habitat quality for the species, summed to 155 patches. Of this total only 5.2% were relevant for regional connectivity, while the four most important patches are targeted by the city’s expansion plans. Ramphastos toco is an effective connector for tropical green urban areas given its adaptability, wide range of movement and seed dispersal effectiveness. We emphasize the need for incorporating ecological knowledge and the prioritization of green areas into city planning, since current expansion projects jeopardize forest patches that are crucial to the functional connectivity of the urban landscape.     

Habitat fragmentation and conservation strategies for a rare forest habitat in the Florida Keys archipelago

Habitat loss and fragmentation are principal causes for population declines and the loss of biodiversity across the globe. In the United States, tropical hardwood hammock is a threatened forest ecosystem that occurs only in extreme south Florida, primarily on the Florida Keys archipelago. This rare forest type is characterized by high plant diversity that is strongly influenced by tropical, mast-producing trees and shrubs of West Indian origin. Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Florida Keys provide important habitat for resident and migratory birds, particularly Neotropical species that rely on suitable stopover habitat during migration. The Florida Keys are under intense development pressure, particularly in higher elevation sites where tropical hardwood hammock occurs. With exception of a survey completed during 1991 in the Upper Keys, information regarding habitat loss and current coverage, conservation status, and how best to conserve remaining patches of this rare forest habitat are lacking. We used a Geographic Information Systems approach to assess the extent of loss and fragmentation of tropical hardwood hammock in the upper Keys during 1991–2004, quantify area and number of hammock patches under private ownership and in conservation status throughout the Florida Keys as of 2004, and evaluate strategies to most effectively conserve large blocks of remaining tropical hardwood hammock. Total remaining hammock habitat throughout the Keys encompassed 3,712 ha and hammock habitat declined by 31% in the upper Keys during 1991–2004. Hammock habitat in the upper Keys encompassed 1,962 ha among 124 habitat patches (median = 1.5 ha, range = 0.1–205.7 ha), of which 1,066 ha (54%) were under conservation status. Hammock habitat in the lower Keys encompassed 1,750 ha among 102 patches (median = 4.4 ha, range = 0.3–96.3 ha), of which 1,283 ha (73%) were protected under conservation status. Approximately 37% of total remaining hammock habitat remained unprotected. However, our analyses revealed that many unprotected areas >20 ha were contiguous with protected hammocks. Safeguarding 22 partially protected patches >20 ha (17% of remaining patches) would protect an additional 750 ha of hammock habitat, which represents 55% of all remaining unprotected hammock habitat in the Keys, and would increase the mean patch size of these larger forest patches from 55 to 89 ha. Consequently, strategically focusing conservation efforts on remaining forest patches of tropical hardwood hammock >20 ha in size and contiguous to existing protected areas represents the most effective use of conservation dollars and would provide greater ecological benefits than conservation of small patches of highly fragmented habitat.     

Vegetation on and around large-scale buildings positively influences native tropical bird abundance and bird species richness

High population growth in the tropics is driving urbanisation, removing diverse natural ecosystems. This is causing native species to suffer while introduced synanthropes flourish. City planners are developing urban greenspace networks, in part trying to address this issue. Architects contribute to these greenspace networks by designing elevated and ground level green spaces on large-scale buildings. However, little evidence is available on whether building green spaces support native fauna. This is true for birds in tropical Singapore that support important ecosystem services and have existence value. Therefore, in this study, we conducted bird surveys and statistical analyses to determine, if and how vegetation on three building green space types (ground gardens, roof gardens and green walls) have a positive impact on native or introduced bird species. We found that elevated greenery (roof gardens and green walls) on large-scale buildings supported a higher richness of birds and abundance of urban native birds than control roofs and walls without vegetation. Ground gardens supported similar levels of native species as roof gardens but also a larger proportion of generalist synanthropes. However, we found no tropical forest habitat specialists across any space type. Therefore, we recommend roof gardens and ground gardens as a potential space for urban natives outside of a less competitive ground-level urban environment. Our study also found certain building design elements (height of elevated space, presence of specific plants) supported different species groups. Therefore, we suggest that these ecological requirements for different species groups are considered when designing a building’s green space.