Modernity And Reform In India

Martha Alter Chen (ed.). Widows in India: social neglect and public action. New Delhi: Thousand Oaks; London: Sage Publications. 1998. 456pp., contents, tables, appendices, notes, references, index. Rs.495.00 (cloth) ISBN 81-7036-703-4 (India-HB); 0-7619-9248-0 (US-HB). R.S. Kharc. Cultural diversity and social discontent: anthropological studies on contemporary India. New Delhi: Thousand Oaks; London: Sage Publications. 1998. 282pp., contents, notes, references, index. Rs.395.00 (cloth) ISBN 81-7036-707-7 (India-HB); 0-7619-9250-7 (US-HB); Rs.225.00 (paper) ISBN 81-7036-737-9 (India-PB); 0-7619-9278-2 (US-PB). Patricia Uberoi (ed.). Social reform, sexuality and the state. New Delhi: Thousand Oaks; London: Sage Publications. 1996. 404pp., preface, references, notes, index. Rs.495 (cloth) ISBN 81-7036-542-2 (India-HB); 0-8039-9305-6 (US-HB).     

Thirty Points About Motivation From Skinner’s Book Verbal Behavior

Skinner discussed the topic of motivation in every chapter of the book Verbal Behavior (1957), usually with his preferred terminology of “deprivation, satiation, and aversive stimulation.” In the current paper, direct quotations are used to systematically take the reader through 30 separate points made by Skinner in Verbal Behavior that collectively provide a comprehensive analysis of his position regarding the role of motivation in behavior analysis. In addition, various refinements and extensions of Skinner''s analysis by Jack Michael and colleagues (Laraway, Snycerski, Michael, & Poling, 2003; Michael, 1982, 1988, 1993, 2000, 2004, 2007) are incorporated, along with suggestions for research and applications for several of the points.     

A Behavioral Conceptualization of Aphasia

Aphasia is an acquired language impairment that affects over 1 million individuals, the majority of whom are over age 65 (Groher, 1989). This disorder has typically been conceptualized within a cognitive neuroscience framework, but a behavioral interpretation of aphasia is also possible. Skinner''s (1957) analysis of verbal behavior proposes a framework of verbal operants that can be integrated with the work of Sidman (1971) and Haughton (1980) to describe the language difficulties individuals with aphasia experience. Using this synthesis of models, we propose a new taxonomy of aphasia based on the observed deficit relations. Assessment and treatment implications are also discussed.     

An Introduction to Joint Control

Lowenkron and colleagues (Lowenkron, 1984; 1991; 1998; 2006; Lowenkron and Colvin, 1992) describe a model that explains complex behavior using only well-established behavioral principles, concepts and terms. The model, called joint control, is especially useful for understanding complex and delayed discriminations within a purely behavioral framework and with no appeal to hypothetical concepts or structures. In it the listener is an active behaver rather than a processor of information. In fact, on this account the listener becomes a speaker. Several examples of the relevance of this approach to the explanation of complex behavior are provided, including cases of stimulus selection, conditional discrimination, and generalized identity matching.     

BOOK REVIEWS

ABSTRACT

COMMUNITY MATTERS: AN EXPLORATION OF THEORY AND PRACTICE. By Margot Kempers. Chicago, IL: Burnham Inc., Publishers, 2002. ISBN 0-830-41568-8, 194 pp. Reviewed by Sondra S. Doe.

FINANCIAL AND STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT FOR NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS: A COMPREHENSIVE REFERENCE TO LEGAL, FINANCIAL, MANAGEMENT, AND OPERATIONS RULES AND GUIDELINES FOR NONPROFITS, THIRD EDITION. By Bryce J. Herrington. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2000. ISBN 0-787-95026-2, 816 pp. Reviewed by Barris P. Malcolm.

GENERALIST PRACTICE WITH ORGANIZATIONS AND COMMUNITIES (2ND EDITION). By Karen K. Kirst-Ashman and Grafton H. Hull, Jr. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, 2001. ISBN: 0-534-51892-3, 600 pp. Reviewed by Eleanor L. Brilliant.

THE QUIET HAND OF GOD: FAITH-BASED ACTIVISM AND THE PUBLIC ROLE OF MAINLINE PROTESTANTISM. By Robert Wuthnow and John H. Evans. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 0-520-23313-1, 429 pp. Reviewed by Barris P. Malcolm.

FAITH IN ACTION: RELIGION, RACE, AND DEMOCRATIC ORGANIZING IN AMERICA. By Richard Wood. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. ISBN 0-226-90595-0 (hardcover), 0-226-90596-9 (paperback), 351 pp. Reviewed by Loretta Pyles.

ORGANIZING ACCESS TO CAPITAL: ADVOCACY AND THE DEMOCRATIZATION OF FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS. Edited by Gregory D. Squires. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 2003. ISBN 1-592-13025-9 (hardcover), 1-592-13026-7 (paperback), 238 pp. Reviewed by Dorothy N. Gamble.

OUR WAY OR THE HIGHWAY: INSIDE THE MINNEHAHA FREE STATE. By Mary Losure. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2002. ISBN 0-816-63905-1, 231 pp. Reviewed by Bowen McBeath.     

Author-Meets-Critic

Freedom is a Constant Struggle: The Mississippi Civil Rights Movement and its Legacy

Kenneth T. Andrews, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 2004, ISBN 0-226-02040-1 (Hbk), ISBN 0-226-02043-6 (Pbk)     

An Underdiscussed Aspect of Chomsky (1959)

Chomsky''s (1959) review of Skinner''s (1957) Verbal Behavior has been influential and attributed with a role in the cognitive revolution. However, while counter reviews from within behavior analysis have noted that Chomsky misunderstood the subject matter, certain aspects of his scholarship have been underdiscussed. This includes several instances where Chomsky misquotes Skinner or takes his quotes out of context. Similar to the findings of Sokal (1996a, 1996b), it is speculated that the problems with Chomsky were overlooked by cognitive psychologists because his general outlook was accepted. Implications for the editorial review process are discussed.

Transgressing disciplinary boundaries . . . [is] a subversive undertaking since it is likely to violate the sanctuaries of accepted ways of perceiving. Among the most fortified boundaries have been those between the natural sciences and the humanities.—Greenberg (1990, p. 1), as quoted in Sokal (1996a)Every man has a right to his opinion, but no man has a right to be wrong in his facts.—attributed to Bernhard Mannes Baruch (Montapert, 1964, p. 145)

Areas of study are sometimes profoundly affected by people outside them. For example, the linguist Noam Chomsky is familiar to many psychologists for his influence in the cognitive revolution, the major shift in the orientation of American psychology from behavioral to cognitive in the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., Auyang, 2000, p. 105; Erneling, 1997; Hunt, 1982, p. 217; Kosslyn & Rosenberg, 2001, p. 238). Some have even suggested that Chomsky''s (1959) review of B. F. Skinner''s (1957) Verbal Behavior, the latter''s theoretical account of how language can be explained in behavioral terms, was responsible for initiating the cognitive revolution (e.g., Bialystock, 1997; Harnish, 2002, p. 44).When Chomsky set out to write his review, he faced a daunting task. While apparently well read in certain areas such as political theory, there is little to indicate he had any previous exposure to psychology except for psychoanalysis (Barsky, 1997) and through linguists who have drawn upon psychology, such as Bloomfield (1933). Psychology in general in the early and mid-20th century was broad and diverse (e.g., Heidbreder, 1933; Hilgard & Bower, 1966), and so too was behavioral psychology. At that time “behaviorism” was used to refer a variety of behavior-oriented work, such as the strict methodological behaviorism of John B. Watson (e.g., Watson, 1913, 1924), the mathematical modeling with intervening variables of Clark L. Hull''s school (e.g., Hull, 1943, 1951, 1952), and the eclectic, molar, purposive behaviorism of Edward C. Tolman (e.g., Tolman, 1922, 1932, 1948), each with its own assumptions and terminologies. Skinner''s approach, radical behaviorism, differed from all of them in that he recognized the fundamental respondent-operant distinction (Skinner, 1935, 1937, 1938, p. 61ff., 1953, pp. 45–90), accepted the reality of private events, and rejected purely hypothetical mental constructs (Skinner, 1945). Verbal Behavior was very specifically based on Skinner''s approach, and any reviewer would have to understand this to do the job properly.Behavior analysts’ responses to Chomsky''s (1959) review of Verbal Behavior have not been positive (e.g., MacCorquodale, 1970; McLeish & Martin, 1975; Richelle, 1976); their counter reviews generally have noted that Chomsky fundamentally misunderstood the subject matter and emphasized major points where he differed from Skinner. The existing counter reviews, however, do not exhaust the problems with Chomsky. An especially important yet underdiscussed problem of Chomsky is the poor quality of his scholarship, which, to this author''s best knowledge, has not been previously addressed. The purpose of this paper is to address this issue and discuss its implications for future literature reviews.

Chomsky''s Review of Skinner

As noted above, Chomsky''s apparent understanding of radical behaviorism was poor, and at numerous points he makes claims not supported by the existing literature. Some parts of his review, such as citing a supporting claim that stimuli cannot be manipulated (Chomsky, 1959, p. 31, footnote 5) demonstrate severe problems with his understanding of the subject matter, and his handling of the most basic terms was so poor that Richelle (1976) said his “misunderstanding . . . would prompt most examination graders to read no further.”Many serious problems in this area have already been discussed by the above-mentioned counter reviewers; these include instances where Chomsky misattributed views to Skinner that clearly belong to others. For example, Chomsky (1959, p. 28) in describing response strength claimed: “The strength of an operant is defined by Skinner in terms of the rate of response during extinction. . . .” Skinner never claimed this, but rather defined it as the probability a response will occur under certain circumstances (Skinner, 1957, p. 22). MacCorquodale (1970) noted that rate of response during extinction was actually Hull''s definition of probability (Hull, 1943, pp. 260–262), and claiming that Skinner accepted this definition given his criticism of Hull''s work (Skinner, 1944) would be difficult to justify. Several other of Chomsky''s errors may have resulted from his failing to distinguish Skinner''s views from those of others. For example, Chomsky claimed that Skinner said “that children can learn language only through ‘meticulous care’ on the part of adults who shape their verbal repertoire through careful differential reinforcement” (Chomsky, p. 42) and that it is part of “the doctrine of Skinner and others that slow and careful shaping of verbal behavior through differential reinforcement is an absolute necessity” (op. cit., p. 42). Aside from the fact that other people''s doctrines are irrelevant here, nowhere does Skinner make this claim. Chomsky may have actually been reacting to Miller and Dollard (1941, p. 82), who in a discussion on language acquisition wrote: “The child is given meticulous training in connecting words to objects and connecting acts to words.” Skinner (1957), however, says almost nothing about language acquisition and certainly did not describe it as arising from a laborious and intentional shaping procedure. Chomsky (pp. 35, 52), perhaps supposing all responses would act like respondents, also wrongly indicated that a “strong” (operant) verbal response should, according to Skinner, necessarily be a high-pitched scream. However, as Skinner (1950, p. 196) noted,

In the sort of behavior adapted to the Pavlovian experiment (respondent behavior) there may be a progressive increase in the magnitude of response during learning. But we do not shout our responses louder and louder as we learn verbal material, nor does a rat press a lever harder and harder as conditioning proceeds. In operant behavior the energy or magnitude of response changes significantly only when some arbitrary value is differentially reinforced—when such a change is what is learned.

Not all of Chomsky''s errors involved confounding views or pure misunderstandings. There are several instances in Chomsky (1959) where Skinner is quoted out of context or the quote is incorrect such that Skinner''s views are not accurately portrayed. A few examples follow.

1. The above-mentioned false definition of response strength was again made when Chomsky (1959, p. 34) claimed that “Skinner has argued that this [rate of emission during extinction] is ‘the only datum that varies significantly and in the expected direction under conditions which are relevant to the “learning process.” The actual quote from Skinner (1950, p. 198) began with “Rate of responding appears to be the only datum which [sic] varies significantly. . . .” Extinction was not mentioned at all. Furthermore, this occurred in a discussion of learning theories, far removed from anything Chomsky discussed.
2. Chomsky (1959, p. 34) claimed that Skinner said that “the frequency of the response may be ‘primarily attributable to the frequency of occurrence of controlling variables’ . . . .” The actual sentence in Skinner (1957, p. 27) was “Nor can we be sure that frequency is not primarily attributable to the frequency of occurrence of controlling variables.” This occurred in a discussion of factors affecting frequency, during which Skinner emphasized that, contrary to the practice of “word counts” used in formal analyses of language, “it is also important to know the prevailing conditions,” that is, the circumstances under which they occur. Skinner was expressing a possibility or an uncertainty, which Chomsky failed to acknowledge.
3. Chomsky (1959, p. 34, footnote 9) quoted from Skinner (1950, p. 199) regarding allegedly using “the notion of probability in analyzing or formulating instances of even types of behavior which are not susceptible to this analysis.” Chomsky used this quote in a discussion in which he attacked Skinner''s usage of probability (and failed; see MacCorquodale, 1970). However, the passage from Skinner occurred at the end of a paragraph discussing complex activities that, as a whole, may never be repeated by the individual. In the same paragraph, Skinner (p. 199) said,

They are not simple unitary events lending themselves to prediction as such. If we are to predict marriage, success, accident, and so on, in anything more than statistical terms, we must deal with the smaller units of behavior which lead to and compose these unitary episodes. If the units appear in repeatable form, the present analysis may be applied.

Chomsky, however, attempted to apply this analysis to language behaviors, which typically involve a large number of units that may occur very frequently; thus the limitations that may apply to predicting marriage, success, accident, and so on as wholes are irrelevant to Skinner''s program. Chomsky acknowledged none of this.4. Chomsky (1959, p. 35, footnote 10), in discussing pitch, quoted Skinner as saying “Fortunately, ‘In English this presents no great difficulty’ since, for example, ‘relative pitch levels . . . are not . . . important,’” the “this” apparently referring to that pitch, among things, has linguistic functions (pp. 34–35). He further indicated (op. cit.): “No reference is made to the numerous studies of the function of relative pitch levels and other intonational features in English.” The implication is that Skinner ignored the importance of pitch and intonation in actual speech. But what Skinner (1957, p. 25) actually wrote was:

In English, this [energy level, speed of response, and even repetition entering into the construction of different forms of response] presents no great difficulty. Absolute levels of pitch and intensity are not “distinctive,” nor are relative pitch levels important. Changes in pitch, however, distinguish different types of utterance.

Skinner then discussed the functions of pitch in English. While Skinner and Chomsky may have disagreed about their exact functions, it is clear that Skinner did not contend that intonation or pitch in English were completely “unimportant” as Chomsky implied.5. Chomsky (1959, p. 52, footnote 42) quipped, “Similarly, ‘the universality of a literary work refers to the number of potential readers inclined to say the same thing’ (. . . i.e., the most ‘universal’ work is a dictionary of clichés and greetings).” However, the paragraph in Skinner (1957, pp. 274–275) this quote was taken from begins:

A reader seeks out other works of a given writer or other literature of a given type because of the reinforcement he has received. The reinforcement depends upon his own verbal behavior. A thematic correspondence between a reader and a literary work is likely to involve a matching of variables in the fields of motivation and emotion. The universality of a literary work refers to the number of potential readers inclined to say the same thing, at least in some measure. The success of a book is some indication of the number of people who possess a given kind of verbal behavior in strength.

In other words, a work has “universality” when readers would be likely to say something similar in content to the work, not specific utterances.6. Chomsky (1959, p. 53) claimed that “Skinner considers a sentence to be a set of key responses (nouns, verbs, adjectives) on a skeletal frame” and then proceeded to criticize Skinner as if this was his position. However, the actual quote was: “Others [other sentences] are nearly complete skeletal ‘frames’ upon which an exceptional response or two may be hung” (Skinner, 1957, p. 346), and this was not presented as the sole possibility. Rather, it was part of a much longer chapter (pp. 344–367) in which Skinner discussed how verbal responses are combined. Much of this involves a class of responses called autoclitics (p. 311ff.), which are verbal operants whose occurrence depends in part on the occurrence of other verbal operants; in Skinner''s hypothesis, grammar results from an interaction of autoclitics with other verbal operants. For example, when one is confronted by the appropriate stimulating conditions (seeing a hungry man) one would not only emit such responses as hungry and man, but also autoclitics related to the specificity of the situation (the) and occurrence (is) to produce a longer, structured utterance (The man is hungry; Skinner, p. 345). Not all sentences are necessarily created this way, and in the quote Chomsky cites, Skinner does indicate some may be partially or completely preformed; however, he certainly did not claim all were.     

Increasing Vocal Variability in Children with Autism Using a Lag Schedule of Reinforcement

Variability has been demonstrated to be an operant dimension of behavior (Neuringer, 2002; Page & Neuringer, 1985). Recently, lag schedules have been used to demonstrate operant variability of verbal behavior in persons with a diagnosis of autism (e.g., Lee, McComas, & Jawor, 2002). The current study evaluated the effects of a Lag 1 schedule on the vocal variability of 2 nonverbal children with a diagnosis of autism. Results showed systematic increases in variability during the Lag 1 schedule. Implications of lag schedules for speech and language training are discussed.     

The Phone-FITT: a brief physical activity interview for older adults

The purpose of this study was to develop a brief physical activity interview for older adults (Phone-FITT) and evaluate its test-retest reliability and validity. Summary scores were derived for household, recreational, and total PA. Reliability was evaluated in a convenience sample from a fall-prevention study (N = 43, 79.4 +/- 2.9 years, 51% male), and validity, in a random sample of individuals in older adult exercise programs (N = 48, 77.4 +/- 4.7 years, 25% male). Mean time to complete the Phone-FITT was 10 min for participants sampled from exercise programs. Evaluation of test-retest reliability indicated substantial to almost perfect agreement for all scores, with intraclass correlation coefficients (95% confidence intervals) ranging from .74 (.58-.85) to .88 (.8-.94). For validity, Spearman's rho correlations of Phone-FITT scores with accelerometer counts ranged from .29 (.01-.53) to .57 (.34-.73). Correlations of Phone-FITT recreational scores with age and seconds to complete a self-paced step test ranged from -.29 (-.53 to -.01) to -.45 (-.68 to -.14). This study contributes preliminary evidence of the reliability and validity of the Phone-FITT.     

Multiple sexual victimizations among adolescent boys and girls: prevalence and associations with eating behaviors and psychological health

The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence of sexual abuse, including multiple victimizations, among adolescents and to examine associations among history of sexual abuse, disordered eating behaviors and psychological health. The sample included 81,247 students (40,946 girls and 40,301 boys) in 9th and 12th grade in Minnesota public schools. Sexual abuse was reported by 14.7% of girls and 6.2% of boys. Sexual abuse was associated with unhealthy eating behaviors, suicidal thoughts and attempts, and lower emotional well-being and self-esteem. Students who reported a single or multiple forms of sexual abuse were more likely than their non-abused peers to binge-eat (Odds Ratio: girls = 1.93-2.32; boys = 2.26-5.61), fast (OR: girls = 1.68-2.34; boys = 1.33-2.32), use diet pills (OR: girls = 1.50-4.30; boys = 2.99-17.29) or laxatives (OR: girls = 1.87-5.11; boys = 3.89-29.22), vomit (OR: girls = 1.75-4.06; boys = 2.82-24.16), and have suicidal thoughts/attempts (OR: girls = 3.01-6.12; boys = 3.35-9.46). Boys and girls reporting multiple sexual victimizations and had the highest odds ratios for disordered eating behaviors. Future research should explore strategies for primary prevention of revictimization and secondary prevention of detrimental effects of abuse.     

Contesting The ‘Civilising Mission’

John L. Comaroff and Jean Comaroff. Of revelation and revolution: the dialectics of modernity on a South African frontier. Vol 2. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. 1997. xxiii, 588pp., maps, plates, notes, bibliography, index. US$70.00 (cloth) ISBN 0-226-11443-0; US$24.95 (paper) ISBN 0-226-11444-9.     

Correction to: Language and imagined Gesellschaft: Émile Durkheim’s civil-linguistic nationalism and the consequences of universal human ideals

Theory and Society - A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-021-09436-2     

Bicycle ergometry in subacute-stroke survivors: feasibility, safety, and exercise performance

This study evaluated the feasibility, safety, and findings from a protocol for exercise-bicycle ergometry in subacute-stroke survivors. Of 117 eligible candidates, 14 could not perform the test and 3 discontinued because of cardiac safety criteria. In the 100 completed tests, peak heart rate was 116 +/- 19.1 beats/min; peak VO(2) was 11.4 +/- 3.7 ml x kg x min(-1), peak METs were 3.3 +/- 0.91, exercise duration was 5.1 +/- 2.84 min, and Borg score was 14 +/- 2.6. Among 71 tests, anaerobic threshold was achieved in 3.0 +/- 1.7 min with a VO(2) of 8.6 +/- 1.7 ml x kg x min(-1). After screening, this protocol is feasible and safe in subacute-stroke survivors with mild to moderate deficits. These stroke survivors have severely limited functional exercise capacity. Research and clinical practice in stroke rehabilitation should incorporate more comprehensive evaluation and treatment of endurance limitations.     

BOOK REVIEWS

ABSTRACT

THE SIXTEEN-TRILLION-DOLLAR MISTAKE, by Bruce Jansson. ISBN: 0-231-11432-X, Columbia University Press, 2001. $29.00. Reviewed by David Woody III.

FOUNDATIONS OF SOCIAL POLICY: SOCIAL JUSTICE, PUBLIC PROGRAMS AND THE SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION, by Amanda Smith Barusch. ISBN 0-87581-447-6, F.E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 2002. Reviewed by Diane Carol Holliman.

THE GENTLEMAN FROM NEW YORK, by Godfrey Hodgson. ISBN 0-395-860423, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000, $38.00. Reviewed by George Haskett.

WHO SPEAKS FOR AMERICA'S CHILDREN, by Carol DeVita and Rachael Mosher-Williams, editors. ISBN 0-87766-704-7, Urban Institute, 2001, $26.50. Reviewed by John G. McNutt.

THE INVISIBLE CARING HAND: AMERICAN CONGREGATIONS AND THE PROVISION OF WELFARE, by Ram Cnaan. ISBN 0-814-71618-0, New York University Press, 2002, 340 pages, $19.50. Reviewed by Melanie Wilson.     

Book reviews

L. Keeble and B.D. Loader (eds) Community Informatics. Shaping Computer-mediated Social Relations (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 388, ISBN 0-415-23112-4 (pbk) £18.99.

H. Dreyfus, On the Internet: Thinking in Action (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 136, ISBN 0-415228-077 (pbk).

D. Miller and D. Slater, The Internet: An Ethnographic Approach (Oxford and New York: Berg, 2000), pp. 217, ISBN 1-8S973-389-1 (pbk) £14.99.     

Correction to: Anthropogenic factors influence the occupancy of an invasive carnivore in a suburban preserve system

Urban Ecosystems - A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-021-01099-2     

Social welfare rankings of income distributions A new parametric concept of intermediate inequality

This paper installs a new concept of intermediate inequality, which we refer to as η-inequality equivalence, in the notable form of equivalence of the Lorenz partial ordering and social welfare dominance. The η-inequality equivalence is a parameterized generalization of Krtscha’s (1994) non-linear compromise between the relative and absolute inequality views. For each η ∈ [0,1], we place a class of social evaluation functions satisfying the S-concavity as well as the property that an increase in incomes while leaving η-inequality intact raises welfare. We prove that one income distribution dominates another for all social evaluation functions in iff the former has a higher mean and a higher η-Lorenz curve. We prove also that the class is strictly increasing in the sense of inclusion as η decreases.I am grateful to Kiyoshi Kuga for his helpful comments and suggestions. I am also grateful to an anonymous referee and an associate editor for many valuable comments and suggestions that have much improved the paper. A previous version of this paper was presented at the annual meeting of the Japanese Economic Association, October 7, 2001, Tokyo, Japan. I wish to thank Takashi Toyoda for his helpful comments and suggestions at the meeting. This research was supported in part by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in Japan (Grant-in-aid for Scientific Research No.12630032).     

上海市民眼中的世博会——关于中国2010年上海世博会的市民意识调查

“了解世博、参与世博、服务世博”的观念已深入人心,广大市民的世博会意识总体上比较理想,知晓度,认同度,参与度等比较高。但目前市民对交通压力、接待能力等问题尚有一些忧虑,须引起有关各方重视,以采取补救性措施。     

Endurance exercise and leg strength in older women

Quadriceps strength and mass peak in the third decade of life, plateau, and then decline from the fifth decade on. To examine the influence of chronic endurance training and age on lean mass and leg strength, women runners (n = 62, age 43-69 years) and sedentary participants (n = 33, age 43-66 years) were divided into 40-, 50-, and 60-year age groups. Absolute isokinetic concentric torque did not differ between runners and sedentary women (97.9 +/- 19.5 and 104.6 +/- 22.7 N . m, respectively, p = .18) but was different between age groups independent of exercise status (107.6 +/- 18.4, 97.1 +/- 19.9, and 90.1 +/- 21.4 N . m, for 40s, 50s, and 60s, respectively, p < .05). Lean body mass also differed by age group (p < .05) but did not change differently among runners and sedentary women. These findings suggest that chronic endurance training might not influence the loss of muscle mass and muscle strength that occur with aging.     

The Emerging Sophistication in Human Service Management

ABSTRACT

An essay review of: HUMAN SERVICES MANAGEMENT: ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE. By David M. Austin. New York: Columbia University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-231-10836-2, 468 pp.

ACHIEVING EXCELLENCE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SERVICES ORGANIZATIONS. By Peter M. Kettner. Boston: Allyn &Bacon, 2002. ISBN 0-205-31878-9, 416 pp.

MANAGEMENT OF HUMAN SERVICE PROGRAMS. By Judith A. Lewis, Michael D. Lewis, Thomas R. Packard, Jr., and Federico Souflee. California: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning, 2001. ISBN 0-534-36886-7, 400 pp.