代际气候正义中的历史责任沉思--兼与徐峰博士商榷

气候变化问题的生成既是一个具体的社会历史进程，也是一个不断地由地方性转向全球性的过程。作为现代工业文明的产物，气候变化问题是现代性的后果。代际气候正义处理的是代际之间在气候资源配置与消费上的正义关系，主要包括前代人应该承担什么样的历史责任和当代人对未来人具有什么样的义务。在代际气候正义的历史责任认定上，“可原谅的无知”不能为发达国家或前代人的大气污染行为免责。因为“无知”不等于“不知”，“可原谅的无知”带来了责任认定上的契约主义，不利于贯彻代际气候正义原则。发达国家承担历史责任的依据在于“合理的谨慎”。原因在于引发气候变化问题的各主体都存着道义上义务---“合理的谨慎”，这是代际气候正义得以实现的重要原则。人类必须在资源有限的条件下展开社会合作，“合理的谨慎”能够保证社会合作与社会发展的顺利实现；气候变化问题是现代性风险的重要体现，“合理的谨慎”是应对气候变化问题的有效理念；气候变化问题归责的立足点在于各方主体的行为，正是各方主体未能履行“合理的谨慎”义务，才引发了全球性的温室效应。     

The Criminal Justice System and the Politics of Scrutiny

The criminal justice system remains largely untouched by over a decade of scrutiny and restructuring of public services by consecutive Conservative administrations. This is despite the system's lack of accountability, absence of clear objectives, prolific unfettered spending patterns, and discrepancies in its treatment of suspects and offenders at all stages of the prosecution process as witnessed by regular and embarrassing “mishaps”. This paper explains the apparent contradictions in the New Right's social policy agenda showing how the overtly Thatcheritepolicies of “law and order” with its own brand of moral authoritarianism continues to immunize and protect the professional players on the criminal justice stage from the policies of scrutiny and consequent change. Ironically, it is argued, criminal justice and penal policy is one area of social policy where the machinery of appraisal, audit and management by objectives would be highly beneficial. Paul Wilding provided stimulating and helpful comments on the first draft of this paper and Howard Parker helped me to keep the contradictions of the system as the theme of the paper.     

Probation Partnerships, Voluntary Action and Community Justice

Having been offered — and prepared to accept — a “centre-stage”role in the operation of the criminal justice system as recently as 1991, the Probation Service in England and Wales seems increasingly to be marginalized by politicians who, in a more punitive climate, have changed their minds about what is expected of it. As a probation spokesperson has recently said: “the big vision has gone”. One strand of policy which the Probation Service was expected to develop in 1991 was increased partnership with voluntary organizations, but, although progress has been made, it is a policy about which the Service has been very ambivalent, fearing that it may lead in the longer term to privatization of their work. This paper will outline the origins and implications of the policy, note how some local Services have so far responded to it, and suggest that, if pursued in certain fields of activity, partnership could contain an alternative vision to the one that has been lost.     

Anti-racism and the Limits of Equal Opportunities Policy in the Criminal Justice System

In this paper some of the evidence relating to the incidence of racial discrimination in the criminal justice system will be critically examined. It will be argued that equal opportunities policies have been adopted in the British case with the stated aim of tackling the exclusionary effects of racial discrimination. The notion of equal opportunities has been contested not least by those who have advocated anti-racist approaches towards discrimination. Anti-racism has been represented by some of its advocates as reflecting a critique of the authentic source of racism which is loosely defined in terms of social structure and capitalist social relations. The case for reconstituting anti-racism in such a way as to make it relevant to the lives of black offenders will be made. Finally, a framework for developing policies based upon the implementation of specific and clearly stated rights will be made.     

Realist Versus Anti‐Realist Moral Selves—and the Irrelevance of Narrativism

This paper has three aims. The first is to subject to critical analysis the intractable debate between realists and anti‐realists about the status of the so‐called (moral) self, a debate that traverses various academic disciplines and discursive fields. Realism about selves has fallen on hard times of late, and the second aim of this paper is to get it back on track. Traditional substantive conceptions of the self contain ontological baggage that many moderns will be loath to carry. This paper settles for a more moderate aim, a “softer” kind of self‐realism derived from an unlikely source—Hume—and outlines the Humean moral self and its possible advantages. The third and subsidiary aim is to challenge the view that recent “narrative” conceptions of selfhood have made the old realism versus anti‐realism debate redundant. “Narrativism” about selves turns out to do little more than recycle old arguments in fancy new packages.     

Cognitive Mechanisms of Ingroup/Outgroup Distinction

People use social categories to perceive and interact with the social world. Different categorizations often share similar cognitive, affective and behavioral features. This leads to a hypothesis of the common representational forms of social categorization. Studies in social categorization often use the terms “ingroup” and “outgroup” without clear conceptualization of the terms. I argue that the ingroup/outgroup distinction should be treated as an elementary relational ego‐centric form of social categorization based on specific cognitive mechanisms. Such an abstract relational form should produce specific effects irrespective of the nature of a particular social category. The article discusses theoretical grounds for this hypothesis as well as empirical evidence from behavioral and brain research. It is argued that what is commonly termed as “ingroup” and “outgroup” can be produced by distinct cognitive operations based on similarity assessment and coalitional computation.     

“宗教礼物论”的可能性：礼物与宗教的内在联系

本文认为，“宗教礼物论”是一个具有潜力的理论视角，它以莫斯等人的礼物理论为基础，探讨宗教现象及其与社会的关系。本文在述评现有文献的基础上，探讨礼物与宗教的内在关系，进而分析礼物理论与宗教社会学的亲和性。文章认为：首先，礼物与宗教是双向关联的，两者相辅相成，不仅宗教现象中蕴含着礼物逻辑，而且宗教为礼物的内在价值提供了神圣性的基础；其次，礼物和宗教都与社会团结的法则直接关联，这一点体现在两者共通的自愿式义务性上，两者既融合了情感性联系和工具性联系，也融合了相互性伦理和等级性伦理；最后，“宗教礼物论”的优势最可能体现在对宗教之“非自主选择性”的分析上，而它的潜在挑战则主要在应对社会变迁与价值倾向上。     

Representing personal and common futures: Insights and new connections between the theory of social representations and the pragmatic sociology of engagements

To understand social issues and practices such as those related to climate change and technological change that are clearly future-oriented – collectively experienced events that are “not yet” – and co-constructed by different actors, we need nuanced conceptualizations of how people think about, negotiate and co-create futures that allow us to understand not only what people (can) think and do about future-related issues but also how that happens, what for and with which implications. However, so far, one of the key theoretical approaches that has conceptualised how people make meaning in situations of change and uncertainty – the socio-psychological social representations theory (SRT) – has not often engaged with the future or with different forms of temporality. By contrast, the French pragmatic sociology of engagements and critique (PS) has engaged with these notions, conceptualising them in relation to materiality and a plurality of moral orientations – two dimensions often seen as key to how collective futures are made and imagined. To offer a more nuanced and systematic conceptualization of how people represent the future and with what consequences, this paper will present, compare and synthesise SRT and PS, as a first step towards an interdisciplinary research agenda on social change and representations of the future.     

On the Social Dimensions of Moral Psychology

Contemporary moral psychology has been enormously enriched by recent theoretical developments and empirical findings in evolutionary biology, cognitive psychology and neuroscience, and social psychology and psychopathology. Yet despite the fact that some theorists have developed specifically “social heuristic” (Gigerenzer, 2008) and “social intuitionist” (Haidt, 2007) theories of moral judgment and behavior, and despite regular appeals to the findings of experimental social psychology, contemporary moral psychology has largely neglected the social dimensions of moral judgment and behavior. I provide a brief sketch of these dimensions, and consider the implications for contemporary theory and research in moral psychology.     

“桑梓情谊”的现代转化：费孝通社会理论的情感维度

费孝通的社会理论在社会结构方面更受学界重视，而其中的情感维度尚未得到足够关注。本文试图在费孝通早年有关中国现代化的理论视域中，梳理他有关“桑梓情谊”与“亲属情谊”“乡土工业”“村镇地方团体”之间关系的探索和讨论，进而呈现费孝通社会理论中对于情感的重视。 在费孝通看来，中国的现代化应该以中国传统社会组织为基础来嫁接西方现代技术， 从而推动整个社会从传统向现代的有效过渡。 在此过程中，他尝试将既旧且新的“桑梓情谊”阐释为现代中国社会的情感基础。 文章认为，“桑梓情谊”表征并构造了本地的根源与大社会的流动以及地方与国家的人际关联， 是理解费孝通社会理论之情感维度的关键，对我们思考当代中国现代化建设也有一定的启示。     

The Moral Arc as a Pretzel: Social Justice in the Trenches

This article explores how social justice has been defined in social work practice and contests the claim of some in our profession that direct practice and social welfare programs are incompatible with social justice, drawing on Foucault’s work on the inextricable link between power and knowledge. This article proposes that social justice “in the trenches” needs further theorizing. Literature supporting a view that direct practice is congruent with a social justice perspective is reviewed. Theory of recognition is introduced as a possible overarching theory to ground direct practice within a social justice framework.     

“应得”传统的历史叙事

对“应得”概念的讨论可以追溯至古希腊时期。亚里士多德等人认为所谓“应得”是根据公民的“德性”分配公共职务,启蒙运动宣扬的自由、平等与民主等理念改变了“应得”的历史传统,它赋予公民以“自治”和权利意识,让人们意识到可以依凭个体的自主行动来“应得”社会的基本益品。当代正义理论家罗尔斯等人区分了“应得”和“反应得”,将超出个人控制、受运气因素影响的“应得”（如自然天赋、社会地位等）排除在分配正义之外。罗尔斯等人的区分深化了“应得”理论的思考。当代社会对“应得”的讨论还进一步扩展到人类与动物、当代人与未来世代以及民族国家和全球共同体之间。     

Autonomous Agency in Anti-Dualistic Social Ontologies: A Compatibilist Notion

Anti-dualistic social ontologies, those highlighting the intrinsic interdependency of agency and structure as two sides of the same coin, are sometimes criticized for failing to provide a satisfactory account of autonomous – capable and free – agency, or even denying the reality of such agency. This paper contests these claims, arguing that anti-dualistic ontologies only conflict with autonomous agency when the latter is understood in a highly voluntaristic sense, whose ideational roots go to what philosophers of free will call “incompatibilist” intuitions of freedom. Those intuitions suggest that actions (intentions, decisions) ultimately determined by extrinsic causes lack the kind of freedom presupposed by moral responsibility, so when agentive autonomy is presumed to involve such freedom, it does indeed cohere poorly with the anti-dualistic picture of intrinsically structured agency. Herein, however, an alternative, “compatibilist” notion of autonomy is advanced, such that does not conflict with extrinsic determination and is therefore congruent with anti-dualistic social ontologies.     

Contingency and Social Change: Collective Engagement in Conditions of Radical Uncertainty

This paper addresses the nexus between contingency, social engagement and change, through investigating the potential of severe (“disruptive”) contingency to bring about new forms of joint agency. By challenging Boltanski's notion of existential tests (which can only be experienced in isolation), the paper argues that social actors can experience disruptive contingent events in an inherently intersubjective manner. Although they severely hinder social interaction, disruptive contingent events enable a possibility of what might be called “negative common knowledge” between social actors which in turn renders certain societal norms meaningless. This possibility is mediated through processes of mutual engagement (calls between actors) that could, further, be transformed into a new “norm circle” (Dave Elder-Vass). Social domination – in particular its “complex” variety – in this context appears as the obstructing of such transformation. A recent political episode in Serbia is analyzed to demonstrate the emancipatory potential of contingency and the logic of complex domination.     

National Identity,Citizenship and Immigration: Putting Identity in Context

In this paper we suggest that there is a need to examine what is meant by “context” in Social Psychology and present an example of how to place identity in its social and institutional context. Taking the case of British naturalisation, the process whereby migrants become citizens, we show that the identity of naturalised citizens is defined by common‐sense ideas about Britishness and by immigration policies. An analysis of policy documents on “earned citizenship” and interviews with naturalised citizens shows that the distinction between “elite” and “non‐elite” migrants is evident in both the “reified” sphere of policy and the “common sense” sphere of everyday identity construction. While social representations embedded in lay experience construct ethno‐cultural similarity and difference, immigration policies engage in an institutionalised positioning process by determining migrants' rights of mobility. These spheres of knowledge and practice are not disconnected as these two levels of “managing otherness” overlap—it is the poorer, less skilled migrants, originating outside the West who epitomise difference (within a consensual sphere) and have less freedom of mobility (within a reified sphere). We show that the context of identity should be understood as simultaneously psychological and political.     

论儒家义利思想的逻辑体系及其意义

一般人们往往以现代西方伦理学的尺度武断地将儒家义利观认定为重义轻利的义利观。其实传统儒家义利观是不断“与时进焉” ,不断演进和丰富的体系。可以从两个层面理解儒家义利观体系 ,即 :本体论层面和价值论层面。在道德本质上 ,它坚持了道义主体论倾向 ,逻辑表述为 :义为利之本 ,义重利轻 ,义以建利 ,义利统一。就价值而言 ,个体人在现实中所面对纷争进行正确选择应具备的道德素质是基础性应用价值 ;更重要的社会价值在于政治伦理意义上 ,要求统治者施行“仁政”。传统儒家义利观 ,经过不断演进 ,通过有效解决现实世界利益冲突形成道德观念体系和操作原则 ,成为中国主流义利观 ,并对后世产生深远影响。     

New Labour, Work and the Family

New Labour has put support for the family at the core of its notion of the “strong community”. Across a range of policy areas the Labour government can be seen to be developing a direct and explicit family policy. But what kind of community is the government trying to shape by these policies? On the one hand, Labour appears to support the family as the basis of a more moral, dutiful and cohesive community. On the other hand, the government has given weight to policies that support social inclusion in the community through paid work. This paper examines whether there is a tension in Labour’s social policies between its emphasis on the importance of stable family life and the primacy given to paid work. Are critics like Ruth Levitas right when they argue that the government’s emphasis on paid work devalues, and is unsupportive of, unpaid work, especially caring for children and other family members? Alternatively, can this combination of communitarianisms—community as “stable family” and community as “paid work”—be seen to be marking out some “third way” on the family? We shall show that different aspects of the government’s family policies reflect different perspectives and policy agendas within New Labour and third‐way thinking more broadly. And while recognizing the tensions between work and the family, we shall suggest that they are often overstated and fail to give sufficient weight to the complementary aspects of Labour’s welfare reforms.     

The Use of Program: Review and Update

SUMMARY

This paper focuses on what has been thought of in social group work as “program”—program skills, program content, program media, or use of program—and what is now known as nonverbals, exercises, simulations or games, or expressive therapy. Certain dilemmas of the past, e.g., process vs. product (content), talking vs. doing, social work vs. recreation, are reviewed as obstacles to the integration of doing-oriented activities within the major theoretical approaches to group work in social work. Such obstacles have been less encumbering to other professions which have presently assumed the dominant theoretical leadership in this area. Some recent developments in knowledge, technology, and social-cultural forces are described which have contributed to a present milieu that places increased value of diverse modes of expressiveness. The paper concludes with seven future-oriented proposals that theory, practice. and research in this area demand.     

Suzi and Mr. S.: Gender role stereotyping in social workers' court reports in custody and access cases.

This paper analyzes the “gender strategies” of a sample of Israeli women social workers as evidenced in the recommendations that they write for the courts on custody and visiting rights for divorcing couples. Textual analysis of these reports reveals what Hochchild terms a “traditional gender strategy,” manifested in a consistent pattern of gender stereotyping. There are clear differences in the way the social workers present the husband and wife as persons, both separately and in relation to one another, and in the roles that they expect them to fulfill, with the man being assigned the provider role and the woman the parent role. Even the way they collect information about the two parents' relationships with their children is different. The paper concludes with a discussion of the practical implications of the findings.