Mexican American Challenge to a Sacred Cow,by Deluvina Hernandez. Aztlan Publications,Chicano Studies Center,University of California,Los Angeles, 1970. 60 Pages

This study explored the attitudes of MSW students (N?=?147) toward transracial adoption and included an investigation of the students' personal experiences that may affect their attitudes. Statistical analyses revealed that although the majority of students supported the practice of transracial adoption, a number of students gave neutral responses to several items related to transracially adopted children's ethnic identity, likely indicating a lack of awareness of the consequences of transracial adoption. White students were more likely than students of other racial groups to support the practice of transracial adoption. Personal experiences, such as dating interracially and supporting interracial dating, appeared to affect students' attitudes toward transracial adoption. Limitations and implications for social work education and research are discussed.     

“Being Raised by White People”: Navigating Racial Difference Among Adopted Multiracial Adults

There are increasing numbers of multiracial families created through marriage, adoption, birth, and a growing population of multiracial persons. Multiracials are a hidden but dominant group of transracially adopted children in both the United Kingdom and the United States. This paper introduces findings from an interpretive study of 25 transracially adopted multiracials regarding a set of experiences participants called “being raised by White people.” Three aspects of this experience are explored: (1) the centrality yet absence of racial resemblance, (2) navigating discordant parent‐child racial experiences, and (3) managing societal perceptions of transracial adoption. Whereas research suggests some parents believe race is less salient for multiracial children than for Black children, this study finds participants experienced highly racialized worlds into adulthood.     

Positive and Negative Aspects of Transracial Adoption: An Exploratory Study From Korean Transracial Adoptees' Perspectives

Participants, 92 Korean-born transracial international adoptees, responded to two open-ended questions designed to explore both positive and negative aspects of transracial adoption. Almost all of them reported experiencing both benefits and challenges, suggesting that transracial adoption is more complex than the polarized “success or failure” paradigm that underlies much of the transracial adoption research. Participants described negative features that are consistent with themes in the extant literature, including racism, alienation from their White families and peers, unfamiliarity with Korean culture, and identity confusion. They also described positive aspects that have been less frequently explored, such as greater learning and awareness and advantages of belonging to multiple cultures. Of interest, facets that some adoptees considered to be positive aspects of transracial adoption were considered by others to be negative aspects.     

Becoming a Transracial Family: Communicatively Negotiating Divergent Identities in Families Formed Through Transracial Adoption

Guided by intergroup and discourse dependence theorizing, the present study explored how divergent identities are communicatively negotiated in transracial adoptive families. Specifically, we examined how adoptive parents’ understandings of their child’s race and culture changed after adopting transracially and how adoptive parents navigated racial and cultural differences through talk. Results from 21 interviews revealed that adoptive parents reported an increased awareness of race and culture, such that a new appreciation for their child’s race and culture developed yet simultaneously amplified ambivalence. Results further indicated parents utilized narrating, naming, ritualizing, discussing, normalizing, and praising to communicatively negotiate racial and cultural identity differences. Findings contribute to transracial adoptive family research by illuminating how parents make sense of differing social identities within the family. Results also advance discourse-dependence theorizing by demonstrating the context-specific nature of internal boundary management strategies and by giving voice to the prevalence of border work in transracial adoptive families.     

Racial Authenticity and Familial Acceptance Among Transracial Adoptees: A Bothersome Bargain of Belonging

Transracial adoption in the United States has increased significantly in recent years. Crossing the color line within the intimate familial sphere has important implications for how institutions such as the family enable and constrain individuals' identity work. We explore how transracial family members utilize racial stereotypes and racialist understandings in everyday life, employing 30 in‐depth, life‐story interviews with both transracial adoptees and their white siblings. In attempts to accomplish a sense of belonging and authenticity, we argue that both transracial adoptees of color and their white siblings experience divergent and paradoxical expectations of familial and racial authenticity. We find that although they often utilized “color capital” in a quest for racial authenticity, in certain spaces and environments, they were expected to eschew their nonwhite identity and embrace “acting white” as purported by white family members and their “white debt” approach to racial socialization. This study adds nuance to the question of how families navigate the enduring power of the color line in relation to the reproduction of both material inequalities and racial discrimination.     

Black and White Thinking? Understanding Negative Responses to Transracial Adoptive Families

Many view adoptive families as less legitimate than birth families. Because of dissimilar appearance and racism, transracial adoptive families may be particularly devalued. White American undergraduates (N = 167) were randomly assigned to view an adoptive family photograph of White parents holding either a Black or White infant. Viewing a transracial family elicited less favorable adoption attitudes and greater negative emotions than viewing a same-race family. Participants’ own racism amplified the effect of the transracial family on negative emotions. Results suggest that transracial adoptive families are devalued due to negative feelings elicited by both dissimilar appearance and individual racism.     

Domestic and International Transracial Adoption: A Synopsis of the Literature

While adoptions are as ‘old as humanity itself’, transracial adoptions are a fairly recent phenomenon, particularly in the United States. This article reviews the state of transracial adoption research through an examination of the domestic and international transracial adoption literatures. Special attention is paid to the controversy that erupted in the 1970s over Black–White adoption placements and to the emergence of international adoption as the dominant form of transracial adoption.     

Transracial Adoption of Children with Developmental Disabilities

ABSTRACT

This study investigated the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities. Thirty-four families who had adopted a child transracially were compared with 63 families who had adopted a child inracially; additionally, we compared adoptions in 13 families who had adopted both transracially and inracially. The adjustment of mothers and fathers was gauged separately at three time points using measures of depression, stress, family strengths, and subjective well-being. Results indicated few differences in functioning between transracial and inracial adoptive parents. Mothers in both conditions maintained low depression scores and comparable means on all other outcome variables. Fathers also revealed similar adjustment patterns despite adoption type. Thus, parents experience both short- and long-term positive outcomes from the transracial adoption of children with developmental disabilities.     

Caucasian Parents and Korean Adoptees

Abstract

This study explored the transracial adoption experiences of Caucasian parents who adopted children from Korea. Self-report data from parents of 117 adoptive families were used to compare mothers and fathers' perceptions in three key areas: parent reasons for adopting, family adjustment related to the adoption, and racial identity of adoptees. On the topic of adoptee's racial identity, parents' perceptions were compared over a seven-year period. Overall, mothers and fathers' perceptions were more similar than different, and parents appear to downplay their Korean children's race. The findings have implications for post-adoption training for transracial adoptive families.     

Conduct Problems in Adopted and Non-adopted Adolescents and Adoption Satisfaction as a Protective Factor

The present study compared the level of conduct problems at age 17 in a large, non-clinical sample of adopted participants placed in infancy and children in non-adoptive families matched to the adoptive families on demographic characteristics. Higher levels of adolescent and parent adoption satisfaction were associated with lower levels of conduct problems. Gender by adoption status interactions were not significant. However, female adopted participants had higher levels of conduct problems than female non-adopted participants, whereas male adopted and non-adopted participants had similar levels of conduct problems. In the overall sample, differences between adopted and matched control participants on all conduct problem measures were nonsignificant.     

Communicatively Constructing Birth Family Relationships in Open Adoptive Families: Naming,Connecting, and Relational Functioning

Open adoption (i.e., involving ongoing communication between birth and adoptive families) has become the predominant form of private domestic adoption. As such, an understanding of the communicative structures that create and sustain these families is needed. Grounded in discourse dependent family theorizing, we explored open adoptive parents’ (n = 298) construction of the birth family relationship through naming and connecting. Thematic analysis illuminated six address terms: identical derivative, familiar, cultural derivative, parallel derivative, first name, and no address term. Cluster and discriminant function analysis revealed four open adoption contact types: controlled, social, constant, and concise, which predict relational functioning.     

Behavior problems and attachment in adopted and non-adopted adolescents

Many studies have shown that adopted adolescents present more behavioral problems than non-adopted adolescents do. However, few studies have been published about national adoption in South America, even though this is the most common type of adoption in these countries. The goal of this study was to examine the differences in behavioral problems between nationally adopted and non-adopted adolescents (using Achenbach's Child Behavior Check-list (CBCL) and the Youth Self Report (YSR)), as well as to examine the relationship between behavioral problems and attachment style in adolescents. Participants: 25 adolescents adopted at the age of 6 months or older and 25 non-adopted adolescents. Results: No significant differences were found between groups in terms of behavioral problems. Adolescents adopted at a later age presented more “social problems” than those who were adopted earlier on. Even though the adopted adolescents presented more insecure attachment, there were no significant differences between groups in terms of behavioral problems and attachment style. There was a significant interaction between adoption and attachment on the Thought Problems scale of the YSR, with the non-adopted/insecure adolescents scoring higher. Possible interpretations of these results are presented in the discussion. In general, the adopted adolescents were not significantly different from the adolescents who grew up with their birth families. Furthermore, adoption within the first two years of life may represent a protective factor against “social problems” during adolescence. These findings may contribute to the de-stigmatization of adoption and a move away from the idea that adopted adolescents are “difficult”.     

Conduct Problems in Adopted and Non-Adopted Adolescents and Adoption Satisfaction as a Protective Factor

The present study compared the level of conduct problems at age 17 in a large nonclinical sample of adopted participants placed in infancy and children in non-adoptive families matched to the adoptive families on demographic characteristics. Higher levels of adolescent and parent adoption satisfaction were associated with lower levels of conduct problems. Gender by adoption status interactions were not significant. However, female adopted participants had higher levels of conduct problems than female non-adopted participants, whereas male adopted and non-adopted participants had similar levels of conduct problems. In the overall sample, differences between adopted and matched control participants on all conduct problem measures were nonsignificant.     

Training for Transracial Adoptive Parents by Public and Private Adoption Agencies

ABSTRACT

Social work literature strongly suggests that parents who adopt across race need specialized training to develop cultural competence in order to help their children develop positive racial identity and survival skills for life in a multicultural society. None-the-less, there is little documentation of agency training for transracial adoptive parents. The purpose of this study is to describe aspects of training provided to transracial adoptive parents by public and private adoption agencies in the United States. Utilizing a survey with a random sample of public and private agencies, results (n = 195) indicate that about half of the agencies that facilitate transracial adoption provide relevant training. Implications for social work practice and research are discussed.     

Transracial adoption: families identify issues and needed support services

The gap between the number of children of color in care and the recruitment of minority foster and adoptive homes has triggered growing support for transracial adoption, culminating in the Multi-Ethnic Placement Act (MEPA) and the Interethnic Adoption Provisions (IEP) legislation. Although MEPA and IEP focus on eliminating barriers to transracial placements, they do not address support for families that choose to adopt transracially. A lack of professional literature exists in this area. This study explores a number of trans-racial placements and adoptions, with the goal of identifying, from the perspective of the families interviewed, potential services that would enhance such placements and adoptions.     

Negotiating Inequality Among Adult Siblings: Two Case Studies

Qualitative instrumental case study analysis of adult siblings from 2 families explores how socioeconomic inequality among them affects their relationships to one another. Eight middle‐aged siblings’ observations of childhood, parental expectations, work and family history, lifestyle, and current sibling ties indicate that childhood interdependence, parallel parental treatment, similar intergenerational mobility, greater success of the younger rather than older siblings, and economic success due to other than individual effort facilitate smoother negotiations of material inequality and enhance the negotiation of sibling relationships as important sources of support. These new insights on negotiating sibling ties over time are related to various forms of capital, a life course perspective, and ambivalence, and point to fresh avenues for future research and theory.     

Factors Related to Transracial Adoptive Parents’ Levels of Cultural Competence

The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to examine the relationship of parents’ level of cultural competence with several factors. Exploratory regression analysis was utilized with a sample of transracial adoptive (TRA) parents of children born in Korea and China (n = 912). Results indicated that 16.2% of variance in a measure of TRA parents’ cultural competence was explained by families’ participation in postadoption support groups; parent's sex, that is, female; traveling to the child's country of origin for adoption; postadoption contact with adoption professionals; absence of biological children in the family; and families’ annual income over $75,000. Conclusions and implications for practice and research are discussed.     

Direct and Moderating Effects of Social Affordances on School Involvement and Delinquency Among Young Adolescents

Using social control theory and attachment theory as guides, this study examined how qualities of young adolescents' social relationships (i.e., mother, sibling, and friend) and dynamic interactions among characteristics of those relationships are associated with school involvement and delinquency. The participants included older siblings (M age=14.3), younger siblings (M age=11.6), and their mothers from 434 families who completed web‐based surveys. Results were largely consistent with tenets of social control theory and attachment theory. Young adolescents' social relationships mostly worked in additive ways, but sometimes in compensatory ways for older siblings, to promote positive adjustment. The results suggest that young adolescents' social relationships may be differently associated with adjustment depending on birth order or developmental stage.     

From Adoption to Residential Treatment Centers

Although children who have been adopted are referred for mental health services more often than their non-adopted peers and might be overrepresented within residential treatment centers (RTCs), little is known about adoptive families' experiences with RTCs. The present study sought to understand the experiences of families whose children were placed in residential treatment facilities after a finalized adoption. Qualitative interviews were conducted with a total of ten families who had adopted 21 children. Of these, 13 children had been placed in an RTC after the finalized adoption. Most of the children in the sample were between zero and five years of age at placement. Adoptive families reported the need for in-the-trenches training and community-based services that could provide ongoing support post-adoption. Implications from these findings include increasing in-home services and other options within the adoptive families' own communities. Future research could incorporate a larger sample to assess whether the experiences of families in this study are similar to other adoptive families.     

Navigating in an unknown land: Post adoption contexts of children adopted from China

Abstract

This qualitative/ethnographic study investigated how children adopted from China construct their identities. The authors describe the subtle interaction of home, school, and community cultures that influenced these children's identity formation. Focusing on the children, the researchers followed 13 adoptive families over the course of 16 months. The setting for the study was in several metropolitan areas of the American Midwest. Children's post adoption experiences, family life, schooling, and Adopted Children from China (ACC) activities became a window for viewing many of the core issues in constructing cultural identity. Children in this study actively negotiated their identities in various social contexts.