A Social-Epidemiological Five Year Cohort Study of Homeless Families

Summary

There are significant social investments in families uprooted by homelessness. There are no data clearly delineating types of families helped, and how long help has sustained them. Computer technology was utilized to track eight hundred and seventy-five homeless families who received networked services from both public and private providers in a case managed family shelter from 1983 to 1987. Discussed are secondary data in case files and primary data from field interviews on longitudinal residential history, employment, familial and demographic changes, and service needs.

Policy questions focus on current residential stability and community reintegration.     

A life course approach to understanding homelessness of shelter residents

ABSTRACT

Using in-depth interviews of 40 residents from a homeless shelter in El Paso, Texas in the United States, this study examines the etiology, processes, and patterns of homelessness by assessing those confronting homeless spells at different time points and for varying reasons. Our study is guided by the research questions: How did residents of homeless shelters experience transitions and turning points of homelessness? What were the coping resources that homeless people drew on to overcome life adversities? Overall, we found that risk accumulation as a result of different traumatic events, such as death of a family member, marital or relationship breakdown, victimization, unemployment, substance addiction, poor mental health, or discrimination confronted in varied contexts, could serve as precursors or consequences that exacerbated the housing crisis over the course of a life. We recommend that efforts geared toward remediating, alleviating, or preventing homelessness be life course driven. It is only through compassion and empathy rather than criminalizing and stigmatizing that we can help stop the triggers and spread of the downward spiral of homelessness.     

Talking with the Experts: A Social Justice Approach to Homelessness in Regina

Abstract

Homelessness is a difficult phenomenon to measure. At risk populations can view intrusion from government officials with scepticism and resistance. Also the fluid nature of a homeless population (as individuals move in and out of ‘homelessness,’ and/or homeless situations) makes it difficult to generate accurate understandings of homelessness and the circumstances associate to becoming homeless. In this study researchers engage in a series of consultations/conversations with Regina based respondents over the realities of homelessness. The consultations are heard from various degrees of ‘otherness,’ are representative of members of community, and span a diverse background of ethnicities, situations and ages. Promoting a social justice approach to homelessness the authors advocate that homelessness in Regina must be understood within, definable material and cultural specificities, inaction and inefficiencies on the part of state and community agencies, and neo-liberal management technologies which thwart meaningful redress. Within the highly racialized and classed realities of Regina life amelioration represents a serious policy response, one moving beyond existing mechanisms of remedy. Reformulation then must first examine the phenomenon of homelessness as dimensionally a community challenge petitioning a community response. The project examines avenues of action in focusing and implementing this response.     

The Salvaging of Identities among Homeless Men: Reflections for Social Work

Abstract

This research reveals the social and individual processes that dominate the experiences of homeless men through an exploration of their struggle to achieve ontological worth. Drawing on eight in-depth interviews with homeless men who are experiencing homelessness, this research demonstrates this struggle is because of the situated nature of identities that homeless men continually reconstruct and renegotiate. It proposes that relations to this set of identities are relevant to homeless men, in particular the construction and reconstruction of their identities within homelessness. The central findings of this research reveal that homeless men actively manage their identities to cope with the instability inherent to the experience. The implications of this for social work practice are explored, focusing on the importance of self-conception and the restoration of positive identities.     

Attitude Shifts: A Qualitative Analysis of Students' Awareness and Reaction to the Homeless

Abstract

Perceptions toward homelessness among 23 undergraduates were explored through individual, semi-structured interviews. Several higher-education institutions have incorporated non-traditional learning components to promote altruism and empathy among students toward the poor and homeless. We focused on one Midwestern university's experiential approach that had a “poverty-immersion” experience within a selected course. We explored how the poverty-immersion weekend altered undergraduates' perceptions of the poor and persons in homeless milieu. Students evidenced marked alterations in their understandings of the homeless: dispelling assumptions to consider individuals in light of personal and circumstantial situations that led to their states of homelessness, and the holistic nature of their needs. Students were challenged to reconsider the attitudes towards the homeless as expressed by those in the middle-class socioeconomic status.     

“Please Ask Me How I Am”: Experiences of Family Homelessness in the Context of Single Mothers' Lives

An increasing number of studies in recent years have examined the issue of family homelessness. The majority of this research has taken a quantitative approach, focusing primarily upon the demographics and characteristics of homeless mothers and children and the conditions of shelter facilities. The goal of this study was to examine the experience of family homelessness from an alternative perspective through interviews with formerly homeless mothers about their lives before and after leaving the shelter system. In-depth interviews with 24 formerly homeless single mothers in New York City were conducted and subsequently analyzed employing a qualitative-narrative approach. Major themes that emerged from the women's life stories are elucidated: poverty, neglect, abuse, troubled interpersonal relationships, and mental health concerns. Surprisingly, a majority of women spoke of their experience in the shelter system in positive terms. This and other findings are discussed in the context of the women's life experiences and support services provided by the New York City shelter system. Social policy issues and recommendations for future research and program development are presented.     

Employment among unaccompanied women experiencing homelessness

ABSTRACT

Women represent one of the fastest growing segments of the homeless population and employment is often central exiting homelessness. However, little research considers employment experiences among unaccompanied women, a particularly vulnerable sub-population. This study explored how unaccompanied women experiencing homelessness (n?=?20) perceived and negotiated employment in a mid-sized community. Thematic analysis revealed four themes: limited work experience, limited aspirations, the holding pattern, and individual barriers. Findings endorse the need for Housing-First interventions to prioritize stable housing and employment-friendly shelters.     

Homelessness in Ottawa County Michigan: The “Gap” Population

Abstract

Homelessness has gained increasing attention since the 1980s in the United States. And the numbers of individuals and families experiencing homelessness are growing, with a 20,000 person, or 3% increase, from 2008 through 2009 (“State of Homelessness,” 2011). In spite of persistent investigation and activism on how to prevent and end homelessness, there is not agreement on what causes homelessness or how to stop it (McNamara, 2009). What is apparent, however, is that the homeless population is not homogenous. Therefore, the standard models of service, whether from governmental or non-governmental organizations (NGOs), end up neglecting the needs of portions of the population of people who face homelessness. Governmental and non-governmental service providers have recognized the existence of the unique sub-populations of people who are homeless and are attempting to understand and meet the needs of people outside the prevailing understanding of homelessness. This project works with a collaborative of such service providers through a multiple methodological approach to generate better understanding on the two key areas necessary to create models of service for people who are in the “gap” subsector of the homeless population. First, investigation was undertake to learn systematically who is included in the “gap” population among the homeless community, or, in other words, what traits those who continue to cycle in and out of homelessness, and thus are part of this “gap” population, share. Secondly, the project explores what organizations are currently serving these people, and how are they doing so. In other words, this project also ask what are the trends or practices that exist nationally and locally for serving people who fall into this category of homelessness? Findings suggest central traits including mental illness, substance abuse and a history of incarceration as factors spanning members of the “gap” population. Though there are caveats and practices to be avoided, these people are surviving or even thriving through the service primarily of faith-based non-governmental organizations, unfettered by the policy and funding constraints of governmental entities.     

The role of local businesses in addressing multidimensional needs of homeless populations

ABSTRACT

Contrary to the perception that the business community can be hostile and exclusive toward individuals experiencing homelessness, local businesses can and do serve homeless populations at multiple levels. This article proposes a theoretical framework that links the versatile roles that local businesses can play in addressing various dimensions of human needs. This theoretical framework is illustrated through two models in Washington, D.C. and Los Angeles, which focus on the role of business improvement districts (BIDs) and a social enterprise intervention (SEI), respectively. These models demonstrate that the business community can meet not only physical needs but also the emotional and self-actualization goals of homeless individuals. This article suggests that social work education and field education curricula can benefit from engaging the business sector in addressing complex social issues, such as homelessness.     

Changing Attitudes Toward the Homeless: The Effects of Prosocial Communication With the Homeless

One hundred, thirty-four undergraduate students participated in afield experiment designed to examine the effects of extended, prosocial communication with homeless persons, upon attitudes toward the homeless problem, of behavioral intentions towards the homeless, and of causal attributions about homelessness. It was expected that prosocial interaction with the homeless would produce shifts in attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the homeless and homelessness and result in greater attributions of external causes to explain homelessness. Nineteen experimental participants worked 15 hours at a local homeless shelter. Their responses to a posttestquestionnaire that measured a range of attitudinal and behavioral orientations toward the homeless were compared with control participants who did not work at the shelter. Subsequent analyses furnished strong evidence of positive changes in attitudes and intentions toward homelessness among the shelter workers. These participants evaluated homeless people as less blameworthy and more socially attractive than did control participants; moreover, shelter workers indicated more personal responsibility and behavioral commitment to helping the homeless than control participants. They also perceived the homeless problem to be more serious and were more likely to attribute homelessness to bad luck than control participants. However, the two groups were equally likely to attribute homelessness to various external causes such as the economy, housing costs, and governmental policies. The results are interpreted as having policy implications for volunteer service.     

The New Sisters of the Road: Homeless Women and Their Children

ABSTRACT

This article examines the growing social problem of homeless women and their children. It provides a historical perspective, reasons for the increased incidence of family homelessness, the negative effects of homelessness on women and children, and programmatic responses. It also makes recommendations for effective program services and policy reforms. It urges family social workers to adopt a policy advocacy orientation. The article concludes that there is a need for further research to separate causes from effects when studying homeless women and children, and that researchers need to attend to the significance of gender for the social problem of family homelessness.     

Changing Attitudes Toward the Homeless: The Effects of Prosocial Communication With the Homeless

One hundred, thirty-four undergraduate students participated in a field experiment designed to examine the effects of extended, prosocial communication with homeless persons, upon attitudes toward the homeless problem, of behavioral intentions towards the homeless, and of causal attributions about homelessness. It was expected that prosocial interaction with the homeless would produce shifts in attitudes and behavioral intentions toward the homeless and homelessness and result in greater attributions of external causes to explain homelessness. Nineteen experimental participants worked 15 hours at a local homeless shelter. Their responses to a posttest questionnaire that measured a range of attitudinal and behavioral orientations toward the homeless were compared with control participants who did not work at the shelter. Subsequent analyses furnished strong evidence of positive changes in attitudes and intentions toward homelessness among the shelter workers. These participants evaluated homeless people as less blameworthy and more socially attractive than did control participants; moreover, shelter workers indicated more personal responsibility and behavioral commitment to helping the homeless than control participants. They also perceived the homeless problem to be more serious and were more likely to attribute homelessness to bad luck than control participants. However, the two groups were equally likely to attribute homelessness to various external causes such as the economy, housing costs, and governmental policies. The results are interpreted as having policy implications for volunteer service.     

Applications of Machine Learning Methods to Predict Readmission and Length-of-Stay for Homeless Families: The Case of Win Shelters in New York City

ABSTRACT

New York City faces the challenge of an ever-increasing homeless population with almost 60,000 people currently living in city shelters. In 2015, approximately 25% of families stayed longer than nine months in a shelter, and 17% of families with children that exited a homeless shelter returned to the shelter system within 30 days of leaving. This suggests that “long-term” shelter residents and those that re-enter shelters contribute significantly to the rise of the homeless population living in city shelters and indicate systemic challenges to finding adequate permanent housing. This article focuses on our preliminary work with Win (Women-in-Need) shelters to understand the factors that predict readmission and length-of-stay of homeless families. We create a unified, comprehensive database of the homeless population being served by Win shelters, accounting for more than 6,000 homeless families. We apply logistic regression models and an unsupervised clustering algorithm to identify predictors of re-entry and long-term length-of-stay. Citizenship, age, medical conditions, employment, and history of foster care or shelter stays as a child are found to be significant predictors. The results of the K-means clustering identify three primary groups, consistent with previous typologies characterized by transitionally homeless, episodically homeless, and chronically homeless.     

Remembering,Apologies, and Truth: Challenges for Social Work Today

Abstract

In 2003, over 41?000 families with accompanying children throughout Australia were assisted by homeless services. Sole fathers with children in their care who are homeless are a minority group within this overall population of homeless families and, as such, little is known about their experiences of homelessness and fathering. The present paper reports on an exploratory study of sole fathers with children in their care who were homeless in the Australian Capital Territory. The study identifies the fathers’ pathways into and experiences of homelessness, and the fathers share their stories of what it means to be a sole father. The paper identifies the issues fathers may experience when dealing with homelessness and fatherhood. An increased understanding of these experiences can contribute to the development of further research and improved practice with such families.     

Homeless mothers and depression: misdirected policy.

This paper is a critique of recent service-intensive shelter programs for homeless mothers and the policies that underlie these shelters. We first document the process by which mental health problems and family homelessness became so closely but mistakenly linked. We then demonstrate empirically that shelter programs for homeless families nonetheless presume that mental health problems are part of the causal nexus of family homelessness and indiscriminately deliver mental health services to homeless mothers. Simultaneously, shelter programs encourage the isolation of their residents from what they presume to be their "problematic" social networks. We show that, while mental health services had little impact on depression levels among homeless mothers, isolation from social networks did increase depression among homeless mothers. Our findings suggest that policy should put more emphasis on rapid reintegration into the community through providing housing, and it should put less emphasis on providing services.     

Violence Against Homeless Women: Safety and Social Policy

Abstract

Over the past 20 years there has been increasing understanding of the gendered nature of homelessness in Australia. Most significantly, this gendering has occurred through the acknowledgement of the links between domestic violence and homelessness and this has played out in Australian social policy through the funding of specialist domestic violence services. However, not all women are assisted by these specialist services—either because they are not homeless due to domestic violence, or because they fall through the gaps in the service system. Homelessness exposes these women to heightened vulnerability to violence. This article considers homeless women's experiences of violence and their implications for homelessness policy. Framed by Australian and Victorian social policy and drawing on a qualitative study of 29 women, all of whom had experienced violence during homelessness, the article argues that greater policy attention needs to be paid to ensuring homeless women's safety.     

Responding to People Sleeping Rough: Dilemmas and Opportunities for Social Work

Abstract

Rough sleeping refers to the state of being literally without shelter or residing in shelter not fit for human habitation. People who sleep rough are thought to be a group who experience a range of complex problems in addition to their homelessness. Despite their small numbers relative to the broader homeless population, rough sleepers have been identified as a target group for policy and practice intervention. This article critically examines outreach responses directed toward people sleeping rough. Moving beyond traditional charity approaches or interventions that “move people on”, emerging models of “assertive outreach” have been implemented in Australia as part of broader strategies to reduce homelessness. Challenging the idea that assertive outreach is a shift from a social work approach, it is argued that interventions to actively end rough sleeping are consistent with social work principles. Indeed, this article takes it that social work must advocate for the provision of affordable housing as central to rough sleeping interventions. Housing not only enables people to achieve human dignity and worth, but the linking of housing with outreach responses to rough sleepers will facilitate a trusting and effective working relationship.     

The experiences of adolescents and young adults residing with their families in emergency shelters in Canada

Emergency homeless shelters can be stressful environments for families. They can be associated with emotional distress and feelings of restriction for parents, and with behavioural, social, and developmental challenges for children. However, little is known about the experiences of accompanied youth residing in shelter with their families, as the literature about this age group's experiences of homelessness has mainly focused on unaccompanied youth. Findings from the current study are drawn from qualitative interviews with 16 adolescents and young adults (aged 16–21) who were homeless and living with their families in family homeless shelters in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Youth described family homeless shelters as stressful environments but also found that the shelters provided support to them and their families. Youth discussed the various strategies they used to cope in facing the challenges of shelter life. These findings add to our understanding of youth who are homeless and highlight the ways in which they adapt to the challenges of living in a family homeless shelter with their families. Recommendations are included for ways that shelter staff and policymakers can enact operational and systemic changes that could potentially improve the experiences of such youth and their families.