A re-analysis of the occupational stress indicator

Abstract

This paper investigates the reliability of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI). Data from a sample of university staff, drawn from all areas of an urban university, are used to reassess the apparently low reliabilities of many of the OSI subscales reported by Cooper et al. (1988). In addition, factor analysis results are reported for the first time for the sources of pressure data. The reliability data reported here, while higher reliabilities than originally obtained, remain unacceptably low. A lack of stability in the device as it is currently formulated seems apparent. The paper also presents for the first time a detailed analysis of the sources of pressure scale, indicating a solution different from that proposed by Cooper et al. (1988). Certain areas of the OSI clearly need refinement; the inclusion of locus of control and type A behaviour as personality variables in particular is called into question. Observations regarding the particular strengths and weaknesses of this device, and suggestions for future refinements, are offered.     

The occupational stress indicator locus of control scale: Should this be regarded as a state rather than trait measure?

Robertson et al (1990) concluded that the Occupational Stress Indicator's (OSI) locus of control scale did not have an acceptable level of validity. The present study compared two groups of health service employees, categorized on the basis of their obtained OSI locus of control scale scores as having 'high' versus 'low' control, on a number of other OSI scales. Subjects who regard themselves as having 'high' control reported significantly less work pressure, employed certain coping strategies more frequently, reported lower ill health scores and were more job satisfied. The findings are theoretically consistent with the argument that the OSI locus of control scale is a subjective measure of an individual's appraisal of their control at work (i.e. a state measure) rather than a trait construct as measured by Rotter's scale (as used in the OSI validity study by Robertson et al).     

Exposure to occupational violence and the buffering effects of intra-oranizational support

This paper presents a conceptually distinct analysis of the data first reported by Leather et al. Specifically, it investigates the effects of exposure to a variety of forms of work-related violence upon work attitudes and general well-being within a sample of UK public house licensees—individuals who manage public houses and hold the licence permitting the sale of alcoholic drinks on the premises. In addition, it examines the role of social support in moderating such effects. Based upon a sample of 242 licensees, it reports a consistent interaction between exposure to such violence and the availability of perceived intra-organizational support in determining the size of any negative effects upon individual well-being, job satisfaction and organizational commitment. It is argued that exposure to all forms of work-related violence, including intimidation, verbal abuse and threat, should be seen as a potential stressor within the work environment, the negative effects of which are buffered by perceived support from within the organization, but not by that perceived to be available from informal sources such as family and friends.     

Sources of stress in the national health services: A comparison of seven occupational groups

This paper reports a comparative study of sources of occupational stress affecting the seven major occupational groups within the National Health Service. The groups are compared on seven dependent variables. These are the six sub-categories of stressors identified by Cooper and Marshall (1978) and measured by the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) (Cooper et al. 1988), and a total stress score that is derived by summing scores for each of the six sub-categories. Occupational groups differed significantly (p.05) in only two of the six sub-categories. In these cases occupational groups not normally associated with front-line care reported higher levels of stress than either doctors or nurses. The results show that high levels of occupational stress are experienced by all occupational groups within the NHS and the subsequent discussion argues for a more progressive research policy that gives adequate attention to 'lower status' groups, such as ancillary, works and maintenance, and administrative and clerical.     

Stress demands on school administrators in Singapore

Abstract

This study investigated the use of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) on school administrators in Singapore. The sample of 223 school administrators consisted of the top management group of principals and vice-principals and the middle management group of heads of department. The school administrators reported pressure at work, and consequently, higher levels of mental and physical ill health. They had high locus of control scores, indicating low internal control over their environment. However, they also reported greater use of coping strategies and higher job satisfaction. Psychometrically, the sub-scales of sources of pressure, job satisfaction, and mental and physical ill health were found to be reliable. The items of the scales of type A, locus of control and coping skills had to be re-factor analysed for the Singaporean sample. The new factors were found to have higher reliability. When the stress and job satisfaction levels of the principals/vice-principals and heads of department were compared, the heads of department reported significantly less job satisfaction and higher levels of mental and physical ill health. They perceived less internal control in their work situation.     

Study-work satisfaction and psychological distress in older university students

In order to study the relationships between work satisfaction and mental health in a group known to be at risk for psychological distress, university students who were somewhat older than usual (n=568, average age 24 years) provided infomiation by questionnaire about their satisfactions from study and paid work, and their level of psychological distress. The measure of study satisfaction was a modified form of Warr et al.'s (1979) Job Satisfaction Scale, and had good reliability. Study satisfaction waslower for undergraduate than for postgraduate students, due to lack of clearly defined identity, less supportive relations with fellow-students and teaching staff, and financial hardship. For all subjects the availability of teacher support predicted study satisfaction, and study satisfaction had a major influence on the students' psychologcal well-being.     

Stress demands on school administrators in Singapore

This study investigated the use of the Occupational Stress Indicator (OSI) on school administrators in Singapore. The sample of 223 school administrators consisted of the top management group of principals and vice-principals and the middle management group of heads of department. The school administrators reported pressure at work, and consequently, higher levels of mental and physical ill health. They had high locus of control scores, indicating low internal control over their environment. However, they also reported greater use of coping strategies and higher job satisfaction. Psychometrically, the sub-scales of sources of pressure, job satisfaction, and mental and physical ill health were found to be reliable. The items of the scales of type A, locus of control and coping skills had to be re-factor analysed for the Singaporean sample. The new factors were found to have higher reliability. When the stress and job satisfaction levels of the principals/vice-principals and heads of department were compared, the heads of department reported significantly less job satisfaction and higher levels of mental and physical ill health. They perceived less internal control in their work situation.     

Age of onset of epilepsy: its effects on coping strategies

Research into the use of coping strategies to reduce emotional distress from negative life events has identified specific subscales within the more general concepts of problem-focused and emotionfocused coping. This study presents a preliminary assessment of the ultilization of coping strategies during stressful incidents among people with epilepsy, and the differences which may arise as a result of the age of onset of the disorder. Twenty early-onset and 20 late-onset patients were asked to complete a questionnaire using subscales from the «Ways of Coping» scale (Aldwin and Revenson 1987) and from the «COPE» scale (Carver et al 1989). Data were also obtained from two groups of 20 subjects without epilepsy, matched for age and sex with the patient groups (a total of 80 subjects included in the study). Results indicated that subjects with epilepsy attempted to minimize problems more than non-epileptic subjects. Adult onset of the disorder appeared to increase the use of negotiation, acceptance and self-blame. Thus, there appear to be some significant differences in the types of coping strategy employed in stressful situations, with the late-onset group tending to utilize strategies that may be considered maladaptive, perhaps in an initial adjustment to the disorder.     

The validity of the occupational stress indicator

This paper investigates the validity of four subscales of the Occupational Stress Inventory (OSI). Data derived from a sample of British managers are used to generate a multitrait-multimethod matrix. The results obtained suggest that three of the four OSI sales (job satisfaction, mental health, type A behaviour) show acceptable validity. The fourth scale (locus of control) needs further development. Further analysis, using multiple regression procedures, was conducted to explore the validity of the theoretical ideas underlying the OSI. The results reveal that both sources of pressure at work and type A behaviour are linked to mental health and job satisfaction.     

The importance of context specificity in work stress research: A test of the Demand-Control-Support model in academics

The Demand-Control (D-C) (Karasek, 1979) and the Demand-Control-Support (D-C-S) (Johnson & Hall, 1988; Johnson, Hall, & Theorell, 1989; Karasek & Theorell, 1990) models of work stress suggest that jobs with high demands and low control (and low support) are stressful. In line with the support in the literature for context-specificity in occupational stress research (Sparks & Cooper, 1999) and the limited and even contradictory support for interaction effects, the main aim of the present study was to examine how the D-C-S model applied in a well-defined occupational group. Using hierarchical regression analyses, and controlling for negative affect, the D-C-S model accounted for 26%, 6%, and 8% of the variance in job satisfaction, psychological distress and burnout, respectively, among 166 academics in a UK university. No two-way or three-way interactive effects were evident, but additive effects of job demands and control on psychological well-being and of job demands and support on both burnout and job satisfaction were shown, corroborating research showing that high job strain is linked to ill health and job dissatisfaction in this homogenous occupational sample. It is recommended that, in future, research includes more variables that are specific to a particular occupation.     

The importance of context specificity in work stress research: A test of the Demand-Control-Support model in academics

Abstract

The Demand-Control (D-C) (Karasek, 1979) and the Demand-Control-Support (D-C-S) (Johnson & Hall, 1988; Johnson, Hall, & Theorell, 1989; Karasek & Theorell, 1990) models of work stress suggest that jobs with high demands and low control (and low support) are stressful. In line with the support in the literature for context-specificity in occupational stress research (Sparks & Cooper, 1999) and the limited and even contradictory support for interaction effects, the main aim of the present study was to examine how the D-C-S model applied in a well-defined occupational group. Using hierarchical regression analyses, and controlling for negative affect, the D-C-S model accounted for 26%, 6%, and 8% of the variance in job satisfaction, psychological distress and burnout, respectively, among 166 academics in a UK university. No two-way or three-way interactive effects were evident, but additive effects of job demands and control on psychological well-being and of job demands and support on both burnout and job satisfaction were shown, corroborating research showing that high job strain is linked to ill health and job dissatisfaction in this homogenous occupational sample. It is recommended that, in future, research includes more variables that are specific to a particular occupation.     

Toward Development of the End User Computing Construct in a University Setting*

The authors identify and define the end user computing (EUC) construct and operationalize the construct through development of a valid, reliable measure called the EUC activities scale. This scale is designed to distinguish specific, discrete computer activities performed on the job. The research analyzes the validity and reliability of the instrument based on data obtained from 776 university employees who participated in the initial, exploratory application. Exploratory factor analysis of the scale resulted in five factors. In order of increasing complexity of job-related computer activities, these factors are: beginning EUC activities, intermediate EUC activities, advanced EUC activities, EUC facilitation activities, and EUC infrastructure activities. The factor analysis, reliabilities, and known-groups analysis provide support for the construct validity of the instrument when used in a university setting. Suggestions are provided for further use of the scale in business environments to increase generalizability, refine the instrument, and help establish a coherent theoretical basis for further research in EUC.     

RELIABILITY-CONSTRAINED PRICING,CAPACITY, AND QUALITY: AN ILLUSTRATION OF ECONOMIC CONCEPTS TO POSTAL SERVICES

A model is developed from which welfare-optimal prices, capacities, and reliabilities for a service provider are simultaneously determined. Solutions are determined under conditions of stochastic demand subject to a reliability constraint on service quality. Both quality of service provided, as well as price, impact on demand for services rendered. Results indicate that (i) optimal prices are equated to the reliability-constrained marginal costs, (ii) optimal reliabilities require that the marginal benefits of increasing reliability are equated to the marginal costs of doing so, and (iii) optimal capacity allocation involves minimizing the system's expected costs subject to meeting the prespecified reliability constraint for service quality. The model is applied to postal delivery services in light of the growing competition that has emerged in this industry.     

Attitudes towards safety performance on construction work: An investigation of public and private sector differences

This paper summarizes the results of a research project into the attitudes and behaviour relating to safety performance on construction work. Based upon the findings of a pilot study (Shimmin et al. 1981), the research had as its principal objective the investigation of previously observed differences in attitude and motivation between private-sector and public-sector employees. In particular, it had been found that the two groups differed in terms of their views on the locus of responsibility for safety and the cause of accidents: private-sector operatives displayed more of an internal attribution and public-sector operatives more of an external attribution. Additionally, the research examined the importance of such factors as working conditions, payment schemes and the social organization of work in relation to the structure of these attitudes.     

Determinants of perceived occupational stress among Chinese offshore oil workers

This is the first comprehensive study to explore the determinants of perceived sources of occupational stress among workers in the rapidly expanding Chinese offshore oil industry. In this study we surveyed 561 Chinese workers in a state-owned oil company using a questionnaire that measured occupational stress and Type A personality behaviour (TABP), social support and other socio-demographic data. Occupational stress was assessed by the Occupational Stress Scale, adapted from the questionnaire developed in previous studies (Cooper & Sutherland, 1987; Sutherland & Cooper, 1996). Using factor analyses, we identified nine sources of stress: 'interface between job and family/social life'; 'career and achievement'; 'safety'; 'management problems and relationship with workmates'; 'physical environment of workplace'; 'living environment'; 'managerial role'; 'ergonomics'; and 'organizational structure'. We performed hierarchical regression analyses on each source of stress with variables reflecting socio-demographic characteristics, TABP and social support. Better-educated workers perceived more stress from the interface between their job and family or social life and career achievement, but less stress from ergonomics. Type A workers perceived more stress from career achievement and the living environment. Social support was significantly associated with four sources of stress. Workers with different job titles perceived stress from different sources. Our findings imply that, in the stress management of offshore oil workers, different strategies and methods could be applied to different occupational groups, and to workers with different personalities and socio-demographic characteristics.     

The Impact of Capacity Costs on Product Differentiation in Delivery Time,Delivery Reliability,and Price

We develop an analytical framework for studying the role capacity costs play in shaping the optimal differentiation strategy in terms of prices, delivery times, and delivery reliabilities of a profit‐maximizing firm selling two variants (express and regular) of a product in a capacitated environment. We first investigate three special cases. The first is an existing model of price and delivery time differentiation with exogenous reliabilities, which we only review. The second focuses on time‐based (i.e., length and reliability) differentiation with exogenous prices. The third deals with deciding on all features for an express variant when a regular product already exists in the marketplace. We subsequently address the integrative framework of time‐and‐price‐based differentiation for both products in a numerical study. Our results shed light on the role that customer preferences towards delivery times, reliabilities and prices, and the capacity costs (absolute and relative) have on the firm's optimal product positioning policy.     

Book reviews

Self development for managers—thriving on stress, By Jane Cranwell-Ward, Routledge, London, 1990. £6.95 (pbk). ISBN 0415-04465-0 [142 PP.].

Causes, coping and consequences of stress at work, Edited by Cary L. Cooper and Roy Payne, Wiley, Chichester, 2nd edn 1988, Reprinted 1990. £29.95 (hbk). ISBN 0-471-94453-X [430 PP.].     

制造商流程改进与采购合同联合优化

如何降低供应风险是供应链管理中的热点问题。本文考虑供应商拥有关于初始可靠性的私有信息,且制造商流程改进可提高初始可靠性,运用委托代理理论,研究了制造商流程改进和采购策略联合优化下的最优合同设计。通过对比对称和不对称信息下制造商的最优采购合同,发现信息不对称的存在降低了制造商向低初始可靠性供应商订货的概率,还可能导致过度努力。信息不对称的存在不一定造成社会福利损失,也不一定产生信息租金。当供应商的初始可靠性水平和纳什谈判力满足一定条件时,相比与制造商的最优采购合同,供应商披露私有信息会使供应链实现帕累托改进。最后通过算例验证了模型的结论。本文对供应风险下的采购实践有很好的参考价值和指导意义。     

The moderating role of social support in Karasek's job strain model

This paper examines whether social support is a boundary-determining criterion in the job strain model of Karasek (1979). The particular focus is the extent to which different sources of social support, work overload and task control influence job satisfaction, depersonalization and supervisor assessments of work performance. Hypotheses are tested using prospective survey data from 80 clerical staff in a university setting. Results revealed 3-way interactions among levels of support (supervisor, co-worker, non-work), perceived task control and work overload on levels of work performance and employee adjustment (self-report). After controlling for levels of negative affect in all analyses, there was evidence that high levels of supervisor support mitigated against the negative effects of high strain jobs on levels of job satisfaction and reduced reported levels of depersonalization. Moreover, high levels of non-work support and co-worker support also mitigated against the negative effects of high strain jobs on levels of work performance. The results are discussed in terms of the importance of social support networks both at, and beyond, the work context.