“找价”的社会学分析

“找价”是明清时期中国乡村一桩土地交易完成以后,卖主仍向买主索取加价的经济行为。本文从社会学视角,分析这一行为产生的社会背景、市场交易特点、官方对这一行为的态度及乡村土地的所有权特征,梳理“找价”被认可、规范确定和边界实现等方面的社会机制,以此解释这一现象出现和维持的合理性。     

Transaction analysis: A framework and an application to insurance decisions

Creating or interpreting people's choices requires attention to a great many details. A framework initially presented in this journal (Fischhoff and Furby, 1988) specifies those details. It is applied here to several insurance-related choices appearing in Johnson et al. (1993) and elsewhere. These specific applications suggest alternative explanations for the results of these studies. The approach as a whole provides an alternative perspective regarding reliance on experiments and markets to study people's preferences.     

Construal Processes in Preference Assessment

Interpreting people's preferences requires understanding how they have construed their tasks, interpreting the proposed alternatives in the context where the evaluation is being made. With stylized experimental or survey choices, researchers' challenge is typically identifying the features that people add in order to make their task real enough to answer (i.e., how they read between the lines). With rich “real world” choices, researchers' challenge is typically identifying the features that people neglect, as they reduce their task to manageable complexity (i.e., which lines they choose to read). In either case, if people misunderstand or mistrust the stated transaction, they may evaluate a different offer than the one that was proposed. Such misconstruals are a nuisance for investigators, insofar as dealing with them delays the measurements that motivated the research. However, they can also provide an opportunity, by focusing attention on how people give meaning to choice situations. This article describes procedures for studying construal processes, strategies for getting people to answer the questions that interest researchers, and options for interpreting responses when people construe questions differently than was intended.     

Paying to improve your chances: Gambling or insurance?

Will a more risk-averse individual spend more or less to improve probabilities, say on marketing efforts that enhance the chance of a sale? For any two payoffs and starting probabilities, the answer is unfortunately indeterminate. However, interpreting gambling as increasing small chances of good outcomes and insurance as reducing small chances of bad outcomes, the more risk-averse individual will pay less (more) to gamble (insure). We find a critical switching probability that depends on the individuals and outcomes involved. If the good outcome is less (more) likely than this critical value, the expenditures represent gambling (insurance).     

The Structure of Legal Relations in Online Transactions*

As the civil law expression of internet plus transactions, the legal relations in online trading platform transactions constitute a complex aggregate of legal relationships composed of groups of legal relations. Specifically, they consist of three basic interlinked legal relationships: Contract relations for online trading platform services between the platform provider and the seller or service provider, and between the platform provider and the consumer. This includes the sales or service contract relations between the triad of the seller, the service provider and the consumer. These relations contain five kinds of major content, viz., the provision of transaction space, the publishing of transaction information, price escrow payment, distribution and delivery of the commodity, and transaction credit evaluation. They involve three forms of supplementary legal relations: the supplementary contract relationship between the platform provider and a third party payment institution; between the seller and third party credit reporting agency; and between the seller and a logistics enterprise. The three forms of supplementary contractual legal relations are set up to act on the major contents of the basic legal relationships in online transactions. On the basis of the online trading platform service contract relationships between the platform provider and the triad of the seller, the service provider and the consumer, the flow of the above- mentioned legal relations centers on the contract of sales or service set up between the seller, the service provider and the consumer to accomplish the aim of the online transaction, meet social needs and boost economic development.     

The Psychology of Environmentally Sustainable Behavior: Fitting Together Pieces of the Puzzle

This paper considers the main features of four general psychological approaches to the analysis of environmentally sustainable behavior (rational–economic, social dilemmas, attitude–behavior models, and applied behavioral analysis), and focuses on the problems inherent in applying each approach to this issue. It also details the utility of a holistic Social–Ecological Framework that I believe is useful for analyzing environmentally sustainable behavior. This approach draws on concepts from ecological psychology such as Gibson's (1979) notion of "affordances," and shows how such a method can account for and help us understand the limitations of traditional psychological approaches to environmentally sustainable behavior, and provides a general guiding framework for the formulation of environmental policy decisions and intervention programs.     

Modeling the welfare impacts of agricultural policies in developing countries

This paper presents a new model incorporating features of developing country agriculture likely to shape the welfare outcomes of alternative agricultural policies. The model features heterogeneous households linked through markets in a rural economy-wide structure, with endogenous market participation for farmers facing transactions costs. We use it to simulate the impacts on rural welfare of market price supports, production subsidies, input subsidies, and the removal of transaction costs. Applications to six countries demonstrate the diversity of potential impacts, exhibit some systemic differences compared with impacts in developed countries, and identify specific circumstances under which market interventions may be only slightly less efficient than direct payments at transferring incomes to rural households.     

An Infinite Decision Puzzle

We tell a story where an agent who chooses in such a way as to make the greatest possible profit on each of an infinite series of transactions ends up worse off than an agent who chooses in such a way as to make the least possible profit on each transaction. That is, contrary to what one might suppose, it is not necessarily rational always to choose the option that yields the greatest possible profit on each transaction.     

新政治经济学的诉求与向往

厘清新政治经济学的诉求与向往,实际上就是廓清经济学＂帝国主义＂在政治学中的扩张所带来的影响。新政治经济学的出发点是要解释市场体制的不完备性并探研政治世界的经济特征,而支撑这种学术努力的经济学方法主要是＂经济人＂假设、交易成本和政治市场。新政治经济学所向往的乃是一个政治领域的＂自由市场＂,它将政治学带回了＂真实世界＂,但自身仍面临着一个学科上的＂合法性问题＂。     

Country preferences,currency values and policy issues

The paper sketches an approach to exchange rate modeling that links currency values to the prospective income streams associated with claims on physical capital in different countries. This framework represents an alternative to general equilibrium models in which asset preferences are derived essentially from the use of different transactions currencies in different countries. The new framework provides perspectives on: the safe-haven phenomenon; the role for monetary policy and the debate over fixed versus flexible exchange rates; the effectiveness of exchange market intervention; and the dual nature of policies toward capital flows and policies toward tradable goods industries.     

Perspectives on a Pair of Envelopes

The two envelopes problem has generated a significant number of publications (I have benefitted from reading many of them, only some of which I cite; see the epilogue for a historical note). Part of my purpose here is to provide a review of previous results (with somewhat simpler demonstrations). In addition, I hope to clear up what I see as some misconceptions concerning the problem. Within a countably additive probability framework, the problem illustrates a breakdown of dominance with respect to infinite partitions in circumstances of infinite expected utility. Within a probability framework that is only finitely additive, there are failures of dominance with respect to infinite partitions in circumstances of bounded utility with finitely many consequences (see the epilogue).     

The Politics of Expertise in Congress and the News Media

Objective. Experts are increasingly active in U.S. policymaking, but what accounts for their varied visibility is unclear. The agenda-setting and media studies literature suggest that experts are generally neutral, distant actors in policymaking whose products are made visible by Congress and the news media when helpful. This study examines how and when the intentional efforts of experts can also affect their relative visibility and whether a proliferation of expert organizations, as has occurred in American policymaking in recent decades, is correctly viewed as creating conditions for more rational, thoughtful decisionmaking, as some existing scholarship might suggest. Methods. I consider the conveyance of expertise among a sample of 66 public policy think tanks in congressional testimony and three national newspapers between 1991 and 1995. In a multivariate analysis, I evaluate what accounts for the quantity of congressional and media visibility. I then use a content analysis to examine differences in the nature of visibility received by think tanks. Results. Washington-based think tanks and think tanks of no identifiable ideology have some advantage in gaining congressional and media visibility overall. Think tanks deemed credible receive more, and more substantive, visibility than those that are ideological and marketing-oriented. Conclusions. Cumulatively, my findings suggest that more credible, staid, not identifiably ideological expert organizations are slightly favored by congressional staff members and journalists to provide guidance on issues and news stories. More ideological and marketing-oriented sources of expertise, by contrast, are more relied upon to build support for ideas, either in staged congressional hearings or on the editorial pages of newspapers. Expert organizations can affect their relative visibility; the evidence is mixed on whether their proliferation makes policymaking and decisionmaking better informed or more rational or thoughtful.     

Postmodernization: A Phase We're Going Through? Management in Social Care

This paper considers the challenges facing managers of socialcare services in public sector organizations in the UK. Sometheorists might argue that these challenges are the manifestationof a new postmodern era. It is argued here, however, that societyis not fully postmodern: indeed modernity continues with someof its features (such as a concern with rationality and reason)heightened and intensified. Social trends associated with thistransitional phase of postmodernization have been highlightedin the literature and here they form the framework for discussingsocial care management today.     

Smoker-Nonsmoker Conflict: Using a Social Psychological Framework to Understand aCurrent Social Controversy

Over the past two decades, state and federal restrictions of public smoking have become increasingly common. The resulting controversy has generally focused on the research evidence regarding the physiological effects of second-hand smoke while ignoring relevant psychological aspects of smoker-nonsmoker conflict. In this article I review the literature on the psychological consequences of smoker-nonsmoker interaction, interpreting these results from the framework of social psychological research on inter-group conflict. From this review I conclude that: a) smoker-nonsmoker conflict shares many characteristics of other ingroup-outgroup interactions; b) both groups are served by the legislated separation of these groups; and c) such separation can be successfully accomplished only when close attention is paid to subtle environmental cues. Finally, theoretical benefits of studying smoker-nonsmoker conflict from a social psychological perspective are discussed.     

The Effect of Environmental Disclosure Requirements on Willingness to Pay for Residential Properties in Borderlands Community*

Objective. This study examines the effect of environmental information disclosure requirements on future real estate transactions. The setting involves pollution from a concrete products and quarrying site near a largely Hispanic, residential community. Methods. The survey‐based contingent valuation (CV) method is used to test the hypothesis that a split‐sample treatment for an information disclosure requirement with a potentially negative affective quality will reduce the willingness to pay (WTP) of potential buyers for a typical property. Results. Results indicate that the information disclosure treatment reduces WTP, and that this effect is significantly exacerbated when the surveys are conducted in Spanish. Conclusions. In addition to identifying significant reductions in the WTP of potential home buyers, our findings demonstrate the importance of cultural and regional considerations for how information disclosure requirements are conducted in real estate transactions. Future CV studies should also consider Spanish‐language options in applications involving significant Hispanic populations.     

The Social Division of Care

In Australia, as in most developed economies, care has now ‘gone public’. It is no longer solely a private, familial concern that can be automatically assigned to women to be undertaken without pay. Nor is it contained in residential institutions or bureaucratic hierarchies. In this paper I consider what is emerging in its place ‐ the ‘care deficit’ and the new social divisions of care, in which paid care is assuming an ever more important place as a result of significant developments in both social policy and in market‐based provisions, especially the expansion of corporate care. Linking recent care theory with the need for a program of empirical research, the paper first considers the lack of consensus on the character and meaning of care, as seen from a number of different theoretical standpoints. Despite important differences in the perspectives on care, common features suggest that there are sound reasons to develop research concepts and tools that would help create the dialogue and sharing of ideas that a more mature field of research and practice requires. A starting point for this is the attempt to demark a clear definition of care. Building on this, I propose the development and use of a broad perspective, which I have termed the social division of care, to provide a joint framework for data collection and for monitoring the changing balances of responsibility for providing care.     

Conservative Stable Standards of Behavior and φ-Stable Sets

Within Luo’s (2001, J. Math. Econ. 36, 95–109) framework of a general system, I establish an equivalence theorem for the conservative stable standard of behavior (CSSB for short) developed by J. Greenberg (“The Theory of Social Situation: An Alternative Game-Theoretic Approach,” Cambridge University Press, 1990). It is shown that a standard of behavior for a situation is a CSSB if, and only if, its graph is a φ-stable set for the associated general system.     

论我国企业立法中的法定化原则及其现实意义

在市场经济条件下 ,基于交易秩序和交易安全的考虑 ,有对我国当代立法中的法定化原则加以深入探讨的必要。企业立法中的强行性规定 ,就是法定化原则 ,其适用范围涵盖了企业类型、企业结构和企业行为等方面的内容。企业类型的法定化有利于建立起一个平等的市场交易平台 ,是市场主体的对话基础 ,便于在交易的过程形成普遍性的信赖 ;企业类型之间的本质性差别在于各种类型之间运行机制的不同 ,而运行机制的载体则表现为各企业类型之间的结构有所不同 ,对此权威性的判别有赖于企业法的依法确定 ;企业行为的法定化问题 ,囊括了企业行为的实体要件法定化和程序法定化两方面内容。最后 ,企业立法中的法定化原则对中国独立企业制度的形成具有重要的促进作用和现实意义 ,主要表现在两个方面 :其一 ,它是消除我国企业身份不平等规定的根本途径 ;其二 ,它有利于竞争性市场经济机制在我国的最终形成     

近三百年中国城市的国际知名度——基于大数据的描述与回归

本文利用谷歌图书的百万书籍大数据,以中国地级以上（含）城市近300年来英语书籍中出现的词频来展示和分析城市国际知名度的变迁及其特征。研究发现,北京、香港、上海、广州、南京、澳门、天津、台北、重庆和拉萨依次为近300年国际知名度的前十强。在此基础上,本文进一步对基于书籍大数据的国际知名度和媒体提及率进行基于时间序列回归的格兰杰因果检验。研究表明,近代中国大陆城市在国际媒体中的提及率显著影响其国际知名度,而港澳台城市的国际知名度和媒体提及率之间则不存在这种关联。这意味着近代以来大陆城市的国际传播主要通过媒体报道进入西方社会。本文最后总结了中国城市国际知名度获得过程的模式和特征。