Adolescent gambling and problem gambling: examination of an extended theory of planned behaviour

Adolescent problem gambling is acknowledged as a public health concern. To better understand adolescent gambling and problem gambling behaviour, the present study investigated the relationships between psychological correlates of gambling frequency and problem gambling using an extended theory of planned behaviour (TPB; i.e. intentions, attitudes, subjective norms, perceptions of behavioural control) that includes negative anticipated emotions as a factor associated with gambling intentions. Four hundred and nineteen high school students were surveyed in the Montreal (Canada) region. The findings generally support the applicability of an extended TPB model for explaining gambling behaviour frequency and gambling problems among adolescents. The results reveal that negative anticipated emotions, attitudes and perceptions of behavioural control influence gambling intentions. The results further reveal that intentions and attitudes have a direct relationship with gambling frequency, while intentions and perceptions of behavioural control are directly related to problem gambling behaviours. These findings suggest that adolescent problem gambling prevention and intervention efforts should consider targeting negative anticipated emotions and other TPB components in order to postpone initiation to gambling (a risk factor for problem gambling) and to promote gambling decision-making.     

Cognitive distortions as a problem gambling risk factor in Internet gambling

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of cognitive distortions in Internet gambling. The primary objectives were to determine whether cognitive distortions predict Internet gambling and investigate whether distorted gambling-related cognitions are associated with problem gambling severity among online gamblers. Three hundred and seventy four undergraduate participants (143 online gamblers, 172 males) completed an online questionnaire looking at demographics, play-related variables (duration, frequency and expenditures of play) and cognitive distortions. Variables were entered into a logistic regression model to predict online gambling. Three variables made independent contributions to predicting Internet gambling: male gender, higher frequency of play, and cognitive distortions. A hierarchical linear regression analysis with Internet gamblers revealed that cognitive distortions accounted for a proportion of the variance in problem gambling severity beyond variance accounted for by demographic variables and level of gambling involvement. Results suggest that cognitive distortions are a risk factor in online gambling.     

The Gambling Motives Questionnaire financial: factor structure,measurement invariance,and relationships with gambling behaviour

Items assessing financial motives were recently integrated with the Gambling Motives Questionnaire (GMQ), resulting in a revised measure that assesses coping, enhancement, social and financial motives for gambling (GMQ-F). The aim of this research was to test the proposed four-factor structure of the GMQ-F, determine if GMQ-F responses were invariant across sex, and test a structural model that specifies links between motives, gambling frequency and problem gambling severity. Telephone surveys were conducted with 932 adult gamblers from across Manitoba, Canada, who responded to items from the GMQ-F and reported their frequency of gambling and levels of problem gambling severity. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded strong support for the four-factor structure of GMQ-F scores, and invariance testing provided evidence of measurement invariance across sex. Finally, support was found for the hypothesized structural model in which each gambling motive predicted gambling frequency, which in turn predicted problem gambling severity. Coping motives also directly predicted problem gambling severity. These results provide strong evidence in support of the validity of GMQ-F responses, offer further support for the integration of financial motives with the GMQ, and delineate relationships between gambling motives, gambling frequency and gambling-related harm.     

Games and Gambling Involvement Among Casino Patrons

A growing literature is addressing the nature of the relationships among gambling activity, gambling involvement, and gambling-related problems. This research suggests that among the general population, compared to playing any specific game, gambling involvement is a better predictor of gambling-related problems. To date, researchers have not examined these relationships among casino patrons, a population that differs from the general population in a variety of important ways. A survey of 1160 casino patrons at two Las Vegas resort casinos allowed us to determine relationships between the games that patrons played during the 12 months before their casino visit, the games that patrons played during their casino visit, and patrons’ self-perceived history of gambling-related problems. Results indicate that playing specific gambling games onsite predicted (i.e., statistically significant odds ratios ranging from .5 to 4.51) self-perceived gambling-related problems. However, after controlling for involvement, operationally defined as the number of games played during the current casino visit and self-reported gambling frequency during the past 12 months, the relationships between games and gambling-related problems disappeared or were attenuated (i.e., odds ratios no longer statistically significant). These results extend the burgeoning literature related to gambling involvement and its relationship to gambling-related problems.     

Association between gambling harms and game types: Finnish population study

Understanding of the harmfulness of game types is needed when planning harm minimization and prevention strategies. Adult data (N = 3555) from the Finnish Gambling 2015 survey was used to investigate the associations between different game types and gambling-related harms. A negative binomial regression model was used to analyse the effects of demographics, gambling involvement factors, and engaging in different game types on the number of gambling-related harms, which were evaluated by PGSI and SOGS. Age of 18–24, gambling several times a week, high relative expenditure, online gambling and engaging weekly either in scratch games, betting games or slot machine gambling were associated with a higher number of gambling harms. Chasing losses was the most typical harm among online poker players and fast-paced daily lottery game players, while poor self-control was the most typical harm with other game types, although some of the results were not statistically significant. Multiple factors were associated with gambling harms, including young age and gambling intensity. Games that provide a possibility for high-frequency gambling are more linked to harms. Recommendations should be implemented to incorporate effective harm-minimizing strategies in the regulation of specific game types both at the legislative level (provision and supply) and at the public health level.     

Examining the effects of gambling-relevant cues on gambling outcome expectancies

There is a consensus in the addictions literature that exposure to addiction-relevant cues can precipitate a desire to engage, or actual engagement, in the addictive behaviour. Previous work has shown that exposure to gambling-relevant cues activates gamblers’ positive gambling outcome expectancies (i.e. their beliefs about the positive results of gambling). The current study examined the effects of a new, arguably more ecologically valid cue manipulation (i.e. exposure to a gambling lab environment vs. sterile lab environment) on 61 regular gamblers’ explicit and implicit gambling outcome expectancies. The authors first tested the internal consistency of their implicit reaction time measure of gambling outcome expectancies, the Affective Priming Task. Split-half reliabilities were satisfactory to high (.72 to .88), highlighting an advantage of this task over other characteristically unreliable implicit cognitive measures. Unexpectedly, no predicted between-lab condition differences emerged on most measures of interest, suggesting that peripheral environmental cues that are not the focus of deliberate attentional allocation may not activate positive outcome expectancies. However, there was some evidence that implicit negative gambling outcome expectancies were activated in the gambling lab environment. This latter finding holds clinical relevance as it suggests that presenting peripheral gambling-related cues while treating problem gamblers may facilitate processing of the negative consequences of gambling.     

Gambling-related Irrational Beliefs in the Maintenance and Modification of Gambling Behaviour

Abstract

The present study investigated a primary assumption of the cognitive theory of problem gambling, that gambling-related irrational beliefs lead directly to problematic gambling behaviour. Participants (N =114) received a message designed to increase their illusion of control (IOC) over a computerised roulette game, a message designed to decrease their IOC, or a neutral message. Participants then played the game, during which their gambling behaviour was recorded and irrational beliefs were measured. Based on the cognitive model, it was expected that those receiving the IOC enhancement message would evidence greater levels of irrational beliefs and correspondingly more intense gambling behaviour and that those in the IOC reduction condition would show decreased levels of both irrational beliefs and behaviour. However, although conditions differed as to levels of irrational beliefs, there were no significant differences in gambling behaviour. Results are discussed and implications of the results on the cognitive theory of problematic gambling are explored.     

Gambling attitudes and beliefs associated with problem gambling: the cohort effect of Baby Boomers

Recreational and problem gamblers alike hold beliefs about gambling that are dysfunctional. These dysfunctional beliefs have been theorized to play a role in problem gambling behaviour. The current study sought to examine the effects of gambling attitudes and beliefs on problem gambling behaviour across three cohorts. A sample of 308 participants consisted of 101 individuals from Generation X, 139 from the Baby Boom cohort and 68 from the Silent Generation. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that for Baby Boomers, higher scores on scales measuring beliefs about luck and illusions of control were associated with higher scores on measures of problem gambling than for the Silent Generation. Generation X’s higher scores on luck scales were associated with higher scores in problem gambling than the Baby Boom cohort. Attitudes associated with problem gambling did not differ among cohorts. These results suggest that while cohorts may not differ in types or levels of distorted beliefs, they differ in how such distortions relate to problem gambling. Future research should focus on determining whether such cohort effects are indicative of differences within the development and maintenance of problem gambling itself.     

Hitting the jackpot: the influence of monetary payout on gambling behaviour

Restrictions on monetary payout may promote player engagement in gambling as a form of entertainment rather than as a source of income. Our objective was to evaluate the effects of monetary prize magnitude upon gambling behaviour in a community sample, and the degree to which this association is moderated by gambling risk factors. One hundred and eighty-seven adults completed an online survey assessing motivation, impulsivity and affect. Participants were given a series of vignettes and asked to estimate how much they would gamble to win monetary prizes of increasing amounts with and without accrued gambling debt. Participants reported increased gambling in response to increased monetary payout. Debt moderated these outcomes, such that electronic gaming machine (EGM) and lottery expenditures and number of lottery games played decreased with increased debt; this effect was most pronounced at elevated monetary prizes. The association between duration of EGM play and monetary payout was moderated by gender only. Results suggest that self-reported gambling behaviours increased with monetary payout even across qualitatively different gambling products, and across gamblers with different motivations for gambling, levels of impulsivity, and negative affect. The restriction of monetary payouts warrants further research attention as a form of problem gambling prevention.     

Adolescent exposure to gambling promotions during televised sport: an exploratory study of links with gambling intentions

Young people are exposed to gambling promotions while watching televised sports; however, little research has examined how this influences gambling attitudes and intentions. This paper developed and tested a research model underpinned by the Theory of Reasoned Action and specifically aimed to examine (1) adolescents' exposure and attitudes to, and recall and perceptions of, gambling promotions during televised sport; (2) associations between adolescents' exposure and attitude to these gambling promotions, and their intention to gamble on sports and other gambling activities once of legal gambling age. An online survey was conducted of 131 Australian adolescents. Greater intention to gamble both on sports and non-sports was associated with higher frequency of watching televised sports, and more positive attitudes to gambling operators, to gambling promotions during televised sport and to promotional techniques used. Regression analysis indicated that the strongest predictors of sports betting intention were male gender and a more positive attitude to gambling sponsors and their promotions during televised sport. Strongest predictors of gambling intention were male gender, subjective norms and a more positive attitude to promotion of gambling during televised sport. Findings can inform advertising restrictions for gambling during general television viewing times, and health promotion messages countering promotion of gambling to adolescents.     

Analyses of multiple types of online gambling within one provider: an extended evaluation framework of actual online gambling behaviour

The aim of this article is to extend previous publications of actual online gambling behaviour that neglected involvement across multiple types of gambling and did not provide levels of at-risk involvement. Behavioural data from 27,653 subscribers of an online gambling provider (bwin) in February 2005 were reanalysed across eight products over seven months. Established involvement levels of offline gambling segregated possible online at-risk gamblers. Forty-seven percent of the sample exceeded at least one of the two most conservative thresholds. Each additionally used gambling product increased the risk of transgressing involvement cut-offs by 3.06 to 4.27 times, but type-specific risks decreased strongly after adjusting for involvement in multiple gambling types. Only Poker and Live-action betting remained significant risk factors after adjustment. Taken together, cross-product analyses of gambling patterns lay the groundwork for an extended understanding of individual online gambling behaviour and overcome the methodological artefacts of isolated analyses.     

The New Zealand national survey of problem and pathological gambling

In New Zealand, awareness of gambling-related problems has increased in association with the legalization of new forms of gambling. This paper presents the methods and selected results from a national survey of gambling and problem gambling completed in New Zealand in 1991. While the primary aim of the study was to determine the extent of problem gambling in New Zealand, the study included a second phase intended to assess the validity and reliability of the widely-used South Oaks Gambling Screen as well as to examine other aspects of problematic involvement in gambling. The results of the two-phase study in New Zealand show that problem gamblers in different countries are remarkably similar in demographic terms as well as with regard to other risk factors associated with problematic gambling involvement. The New Zealand study of problem gambling points the way toward important research topics that will require further exploration in the future.This research was funded by the New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs and by the US National Institute of Mental Health (MH-44295).     

Predicting gambling behaviour and problems from implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies in regular gamblers

Outcome expectancies are the positive or negative effects that individuals anticipate may occur from engaging in a given behaviour. Although explicit outcome expectancies have been found to play an important role in gambling, research has yet to assess the role of implicit outcome expectancies in gambling. In two studies, we investigated whether implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were independent predictors of gambling behaviour (i.e. amount of time spent and money risked gambling; Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). In both studies, implicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were assessed by having regular gamblers (N = 58 in Study 1; N = 96 in Study 2) complete a gambling outcome expectancy reaction time (RT) task. A self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies was used to assess participants' explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies. Both the RT task and self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies significantly contributed unique as well as shared variance in the prediction of self-reported gambling behaviour (Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). Findings from the current research point to the importance of using both direct and indirect assessment modes when examining the role of outcome expectancies in gambling.     

The Temporal Relationship Between Faulty Gambling Cognitions and Gambling Severity in Young Adults

Disordered gambling in young adults is hypothesized as being related to mistaken gambling-related cognitions. Few studies have examined the temporal order of this relationship using longitudinal data. The purpose of this study is to understand the directionality of the relationship between gambling cognitions and gambling severity in a longitudinal sample of young adults. Young adults (N = 578), initially aged 18–21 years, completed the Manitoba Longitudinal Survey of Young Adults at two time points approximately 2–3 years apart. Measures of beliefs about randomness related to gambling and gambling severity, as measured by the Problem Gambling Severity Index, were utilized. A cross-sectional relationship between gambling severity and gambling-related cognitions was observed with greater gambling severity being associated with increased endorsement of mistaken cognitions. Evidence for a bidirectional longitudinal relationship was observed with faulty gambling cognitions leading to later problematic gambling behaviors and vice versa when examining a total beliefs scale. When examining specific beliefs about randomness, initial gambling group membership predicted later endorsement of certain beliefs about randomness while initial belief ratings did not impact later gambling group membership. The results of this study suggest a bidirectional relationship between gambling severity and erroneous gambling-related cognitions. However, when examining specific beliefs about randomness, evidence was found for problem gambling behaviors leading to erroneous gambling beliefs. These findings suggest that prevention efforts targeting cognitions may not be as effective in impacting those not yet demonstrating disordered gambling behaviors.     

Risk and protective factors in problem gambling: an examination of psychological resilience

Psychological resilience – successful adaptation when faced with adversity – is a product of the balance of risk and protective factors relevant to an outcome. This study examined if protective factors (perceived resilience; mindfulness; grit; self-efficacy) explained variance in problem gambling tendencies (assessed with the Problem Gambling Severity Index) beyond the HEXACO personality traits (honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience) and risk factors for problem gambling (gender; age; socio-economic status; high frequency gambling behaviour; harsh unpredictable childhood environments; sensation-seeking; impulsivity; self-control; stress). This study used a crowdsourced community sample (n = 469) recruited from Amazon Mechanical Turk. Bivariate analyses showed that risk factors and some HEXACO traits (especially honesty-humility) were associated with problem gambling issues. Among protective factors, only trait mindfulness showed a bivariate association with problem gambling issues. Somewhat surprisingly, regression analyses revealed that protective factors did not explain variance in problem gambling beyond HEXACO traits and risk factors. However, in exploratory analyses, mindfulness and self-efficacy – both modifiable protective factors – moderated the relationship between high-frequency gambling (a key proximate antecedent of problem gambling) and problem gambling tendencies. These results suggest mindfulness and self-efficacy may serve as ‘buffers’ against the development of problem gambling issues and may be promising targets for clinical interventions.     

Perceived stigma and self-stigma of problem gambling: perspectives of people with gambling problems

Minimal research has investigated the stigma associated with problem gambling, despite its major hindrance to help-seeking and recovery. This study explored perceived stigma and self-stigma to examine stigmatizing beliefs held, how they may be internalized, coping mechanisms, and effects on help-seeking. In-depth interviews with 44 people experiencing gambling problems were analysed using interpretive phenomenology. Results revealed an overwhelming perception that problem gambling attracts acute public stigma and is publicly viewed as caused by personal failings. Participants had serious concerns about being viewed as ‘a problem gambler’, fearing demeaning stereotypes, social rejection, hostile responses and devaluing behaviours. Many participants internalized perceived stigma as self-stigma, with deleterious reported effects on self-esteem, self-efficacy, perceived social worth, and mental and physical health. Deep shame was a near universal emotion and exacerbated by relapse. Secrecy was the main coping mechanism used, with perceived and self-stigma found to act as major barriers to disclosure and help-seeking. The findings can inform the development of a valid understanding and conceptualization of problem gambling stigma. This is a prerequisite for effective stigma-reduction strategies to reduce public stigma and discrimination, and to lower perceived and self-stigma and increase the use of treatment services and other interventions by people with gambling problems.     

The Stubborn Logic of Regular Gamblers: Obstacles and Dilemmas in Cognitive Gambling Research

Cognitive studies into gambling behaviour have shown that many gamblers misinterpret the odds of gambling activities, hold false beliefs about skill and luck, and over-estimate their subjective chances of success. Accordingly, providing accurate information about gambling in venues, or on slot-machines, would appear to be a sensible way to enhance the 'safety' of gambling products. Unfortunately, such ideas for educating gamblers may be difficult to implement in practice because of limitations and conceptual dilemmas in the cognitive literature. Irrational beliefs about gambling may be difficult to falsify, are often highly idiosyncratic and context-bound, and may stem more from the selective misuse of information than from a lack of knowledge about gambling activities. Drawing evidence from recent research into gambling-related cognitions, this paper examines the key elements of irrational-belief systems, and how this work might usefully inform the design of future consumer information initiatives.     

Self-efficacy in pathological gambling treatment outcome: development of a gambling abstinence self-efficacy scale (GASS)

A 21-item measure of gambling abstinence self-efficacy (GASS) was developed. A principal component analysis of 101 pathological gamblers supported the use of a total score that showed good internal (α=.93) and retest reliability (ICC (n=35)=.86) as well as four subscales: 1) winning/external situations (6 items, α=.91); 2) negative emotions (9 items, α=.87); 3) positive mood/testing/urges (3 items, α=.70); 4) social factors (3 items, α=.81). The total and subscales showed moderate relationships with single item ratings of confidence to abstain from gambling and weak or non-significance relationships with demographic and gambling-related variables. The total score and three of the subscales showed evidence of predictive validity for gamblers not currently involved with treatment. Higher self-efficacy was related to fewer days of gambling over a 12-month period. These results provide preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the GASS.     

Excessive Gambling and Online Gambling Communities

The Internet provides an accessible context for online gambling and gambling-related online communities, such as discussion forums for gamblers. These communities may be particularly attractive to young gamblers who are active Internet users. The aim of this study was to examine the use of gambling-related online communities and their relevance to excessive gambling among 15–25-year-old Finnish Internet users (N?=?1200). Excessive gambling was assessed by using the South Oaks Gambling Screen. Respondents were asked in a survey about their use of various kinds of gambling-related online communities, and sociodemographic and behavioral factors were adjusted. The results of the study revealed that over half (54.33%) of respondents who had visited gambling-related online communities were either at-risk gamblers or probable pathological gamblers. Discussion in these communities was mainly based on sharing gambling tips and experiences, and very few respondents said that they related to gambling problems and recovery. In three different regression models, visiting gambling-related online communities was a significant predictor for excessive gambling (with 95% confidence level) even after adjusting confounding factors. The association of visiting such sites was even stronger among probable pathological gamblers than among at-risk gamblers. Health professionals working with young people should be aware of the role of online communities in terms of development and persistence of excessive gambling. Monitoring the use of online gambling communities as well as utilizing recovery-oriented support both offline and online would be important in preventing further problems. Gambling platforms should also include warnings about excessive gambling and provide links to helpful sources.     

Problem gambling in a federal prison population: results from the South Oaks Gambling Screen

Three hundred and sixty three medium security federal prison inmates were interviewed with the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) with 5.2% of the sample achieving SOGS scores greater than 4 and another 7.4% attaining scores of 3 or 4, traditional markers of pathological gambling and problem gambling, respectively. Attempts were made to evaluate the relative accuracy of the continuum and dichotomy models of problem gambling by contrasting three groups of subjects (SOGS < 3, SOGS = 3 or 4, SOGS > 4) on a series of gambling-related measures and comparing the relative ability of the SOGS and a dichotomized version of the SOGS to account for residual variance in these same gambling-related measures. Results were consistent with the view that problem gambling embodies features of both a continuum and dichotomy. Nearly half the subjects had desisted from problem gambling on their own, although self-remitters displayed less severe and extensive patterns of problem gambling than non-remitting subjects.