Psychometric Evaluation of the Problem Gambling Severity Index-Chinese Version (PGSI-C)

The purpose of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese 9-item Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) derived from the 31-item Canadian Problem Gambling Index (CPGI) originally developed by Ferris and Wynne (2001). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; n = 386; Group A data) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; n = 387; Group B data) on the Chinese student and community data (Mean age = 25.36 years) showed that a unifactorial model fitted the data with good reliability score (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.77). The concurrent validity of the PGSI-C was good in terms of the Chinese data matching the expected correlation between PGSI-C and other variables or scales such as SOGS, gambling frequency, gambling urge, gambling cognitions, depression, anxiety, and stress. The scale also reported good discriminant and predictive validity. In sum, the PGSI-C has good psychometric properties and can be used among Chinese communities to identify at-risk problem gamblers. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

A Preliminary, Qualitative Exploration of the Influences Associated with Drop-Out from Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy for Problem Gambling: An Australian Perspective

It has been estimated that 80% of Australians engage in some form of gambling, with approximately 115,000 Australians experiencing severe problems (Productivity Commission 2010). Very few people with problem gambling seek help and, of those who do, large numbers drop-out of therapy before completing their program. To gain insights into these problems, participants who had either completed or withdrawn prematurely from an individual CBT-based problem gambling treatment program were interviewed to examine factors predictive of premature withdrawal from therapy as well as people??s ??readiness?? for change. The results indicated that there might be some early indicators of risk for early withdrawal. These included: gambling for pleasure or social interaction; non-compliance with homework tasks; gambling as a strategy to avoid personal issues or dysphoric mood; high levels of guilt and shame; and a lack of readiness for change. The study further showed that application of the term ??drop-out?? to some clients may be an unnecessarily negative label in that a number appear to have been able to reduce their gambling urges even after a short exposure to therapy.     

An Assessment of the Psychometric Properties of Italian Version of CPGI

The aim of this study was to adapt to the Italian context a very commonly used international instrument to detect problem gambling, the canadian problem gambling index (CPGI), and assess its psychometric properties. Cross-cultural adaptation of CPGI was performed in several steps and the questionnaire was administered as a survey among Italian general population (n = 5,292). Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient was 0.87 and can be considered to be highly reliable. Construct validity was assessed first by means of a principal component analysis and then by means of confirmatory factor analysis, showing that only one factor, problem gambling, was extracted from the CPGI questionnaire (an eigenvalues of 4,684 with percentage of variance 52 %). As far as convergent validity is concerned, CPGI was compared with Lie/Bet questionnaire, a two-item screening tool for detecting problem gamblers, and with both depression and stress scales. A short form DSM-IV CIDI questionnaire was used for depression and VRS scale, a rating scale, was used for rapid stress evaluation. A strong convergent validity with these instruments was found and these findings are consistent with past research on problem gambling, where another way to confirm the validity is to determine the extent to which it correlates with other qualities or measures known to be directly related to problem gambling. In sum, despite the lack of a direct comparison with a classic gold-standard such as DSM-IV, the Italian version of CPGI exhibits good psychometric properties and can be used among the Italian general population to identify at-risk problem gamblers.     

A preliminary consideration of cue-exposure,response-prevention treatment for pathological gambling behaviour: two case studies

Cue-exposure, response-prevention, a promising treatment for cigarette-smoking, substance abuse, obsessive-compulsive disorder, etc. has not been fully utilized as a treatment for pathological gambling. Two case-studies, modelled on work by R. Self (1989), with cigarette smoking behaviour, report on an active and thorough application of this treatment to pathological gambling. In both cases, self-report of gambling behaviour and urges to gamble in any situation were found to decrease substantially. Outcome differences between participants were discussed with reference to different levels of pathological gambling as measured by the South Oaks Gambling Screen. It was concluded that cue-exposure, response-prevention should be given more serious consideration as a treatment approach for pathological gambling.     

Validating the Gambling Functional Assessment—Revised in a United Kingdom Sample

The gambling functional assessment-revised (GFA-R) was designed to assess whether the respondent’s gambling was maintained by positive reinforcement or escape. The present study attempted to validate the GFA-R’s psychometric properties using United Kingdom (UK) university students and to compare the results to those from a sample of American university students. Two hundred seventy four UK students completed the GFA-R, and 153 also completed the South Oaks gambling screen (SOGS). Two hundred one United States (US) university students completed both measures. A confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the original model of the GFA-R provided an excellent fit for the UK data and internal consistency was high. These outcomes were similar, if not superior, to those from the US sample. SOGS scores strongly correlated with GFA-R escape subscale scores in both samples, replicating previous results. These findings indicate that the GFA-R is a valid measure for use in the UK, which is potentially useful to both practitioners and researchers. They also suggest that the strong relationship between endorsing gambling as an escape and measures of disordered gambling may be ubiquitous.     

Screening for college problem gambling in Chinese societies: psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (C-SOGS)

A total of 979 Chinese college students were recruited in order to examine the psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (C-SOGS). The C-SOGS was internally consistent and correlated with gambling-related problems and negative mental health status. Results of likelihood ratios (LRs) and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve supported the C-SOGS as a valid screening instrument for probable pathological gambling. Using the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling, the conventional cut score of 5 on the C-SOGS showed satisfactory sensitivity, specificity and false negative rates. This cut score identified 85% of the true positives and 95% of the true negatives. In general, the C-SOGS overestimated the number of pathological gamblers relative to DSM-IV criteria. Future research on Chinese gambling should build on current empirical work on the SOGS to refine the C-SOGS for use with Chinese populations.     

Geographical accessibility to gambling venues and pathological gambling: an econometric analysis of pachinko parlours in Japan

The relationship between geographical accessibility to gambling venues and the prevalence of pathological gambling is still unknown. This study aimed to reveal this relationship in Japan as well as its variation by subpopulation. A cross-sectional study was conducted, based on an original web-based survey to understand the level of pathological gambling depending on accessibility to pachinko parlours. Pathological gamblers were measured using the Japanese version of the South Oaks Gambling Screen. Accessibility to gambling venues was defined as the number of pachinko parlours within a 1.5 km radius from home. Moreover, the study adopted the instrumental variable approach to solve the potential endogeneity problem. The results showed that the accessibility was not significantly associated with pathological gambling in general, but that the effects of accessibility varied by subpopulation. Accessibility was significantly and positively correlated with pathological gambling for men and people in low-income areas, but this was not so for women and people in high-income areas. The study’s findings show the importance of the neighbourhood environment and could help in implementing more effective interventions for pathological gamblers.     

Do the DSM-5 diagnostic revisions affect the psychometric properties of the Brief Biosocial Gambling Screen?

Several significant changes in the diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder occurred with the newest revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). The changes aim to simplify and streamline the diagnosis without compromising its validity. Yet many of the tools used to screen and diagnose the disorder are based upon the prior fourth edition of the DSM, and it is unclear how they perform with the revised diagnostic criteria. The aim of this study is to examine the psychometric properties of a common pathological gambling screen, the Brief Biosocial Gambling Screen (BBGS; Gebauer, LaBrie, & Shaffer, 2010), in the context of DSM-5 criteria within a help-seeking sample. Gamblers calling a helpline (N = 2750) completed a semi-structured interview assessing DSM-IV past-year pathological gambling criteria with a trained clinician. Sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value, negative predictive value and differences by sex were examined. The BBGS had high sensitivity as well as positive and negative predictive values. In light of the revisions made to the diagnostic criteria in DSM-5, the BBGS remains a psychometrically supported instrument for gambling disorder.     

Psychometric Validation of the Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) in an English-speaking University Sample

The Gambling Passion Scale (GPS) is a recently developed research instrument for assessing individuals' passion for gambling. Because the psychometric properties of the GPS have only previously been examined in French Canadians, the aim of this study was to replicate previous psychometric findings in an English-speaking university sample. Participants (female: n = 58; male: n = 89) were drawn from a university campus based on self-reported experience with gambling indexed by scores on the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS). The two-factor structure reported by Rousseau et al. (Journal of Gambling Studies, 18(1), pp. 45–66, 2002) was largely replicated in this sample, as were relationships between ‘obsessive passion’ and negative consequences stemming from gambling. These results support the validity of the GPS as a measure of gambling passion in English-speaking university gamblers and its potential to contribute to understanding problem gambling.     

Validation of the Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire in a Spanish Sample

The Interpersonal Exchange Model of Sexual Satisfaction Questionnaire (IEMSSQ) contains a number of separate measures that, together, have been useful in enhancing understanding of sexual satisfaction because it is based on a validated theoretical framework and has good psychometric properties. The present study aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the IEMSSQ in a Spanish sample of 520 men and 701 women in a mixed-sex relationship. Participants completed Spanish translations of the IEMSSQ, the Index of Sexual Satisfaction, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, and the Massachusetts General Hospital–Sexual Functioning Questionnaire. The results showed that the Spanish IEMSSQ has good psychometric properties. Internal consistency values were excellent. For the most part, test-retest reliabilities were good, except for the equality components, for which they were moderate. Consistent with predictions, the various subscales were correlated with scores on sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and sexual functioning, demonstrating good concurrent and convergent validity. The applicability of the IEMSSQ for use with Spanish speakers in clinical and research settings is discussed.     

The South Oaks Gambling Screen: a review with reference to Australian use

The South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) is a psychometric instrument widely used internationally to assess the presence of pathological gambling. Developed by Lesieur and Blume (1987) in the United States of America (USA) as a self-rated screening instrument, it is based on DSM-III and DSM-III-R criteria. This paper describes the origins and psychometric development of the SOGS and comments critically in relation to its construct validity and cutoff scores. Reference is made to the use of the SOGS in the Australian setting, where historically gambling has been a widely accepted part of the culture, corresponding to one of the highest rates of legalised gambling and gambling expenditure in the world. An alternative approach to the development of an instrument to detect people who have problems in relation to gambling is proposed.     

Toward the development of an adolescent gambling problem severity scale

The development and initial psychometric properties of an adolescent gambling problem severity measure are described. The scale, based on a revision of the South Oaks Gambling Screen (Lesieur & Blume, 1987), was administered to 1,101 older (ages 15 to 18) Minnesota adolescents as part of a state-wide gambling survey. Study results indicated that the scale had moderate internal consistency reliability and was significantly related to alternate measures of problem severity for male subjects. Because the rate and severity of gambling among females was very low, the psychometric adequacy of the scale for females is not known at this time. The implications of study findings to the conceptual understanding of adolescent gambling problem severity as well as study limitations and future research needs, are discussed.Support for the study was provided by the Minnesota Department of Human Services and the Center for Addiction Studies, University of Minnesota, Duluth. The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance from Robert Blum, Linda Harris, Durand Jacobs, J. Laundergan, Alan Mathiason, Brenda Miller, James Schaefer, school officials from the participating high schools, and interviewers who assisted with the telephone survey.     

Gambling Involvement and Increased Risk of Gambling Problems

The opportunity to gamble has undergone rapid expansion with technology allowing for access to gambling products 24 h a day. This increased online availability challenges governments’ abilities to restrict access to gambling. Indeed, the ready access to multiple forms of gambling may potentially contribute to impaired control over urges for problem gamblers. The present study considered whether problem gamblers manifested a tendency to engage in multiple forms of gambling and identified forms of gambling which were more strongly related to problem gambling. In reanalyses of two surveys (Sample 1, N = 464, Sample 2, N = 1141), significant relationships accounting for between 11.3 and 13.5 % of the variance were found between the numbers of forms of gambling accessed and degree of problem. Participation in online poker, playing cards and sports wagering were linked to problem gambling. Access to multiple forms of gambling may pose difficulties for the tracking and control of gambling.     

Gambling Screens: Does Shortening the Time Frame Affect their Psychometric Properties?

Gambling screening tools such as the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS) and a DSM-IV Screen for Gambling Problems (NODS) developed by the National Opinion Research Council have psychometrically validated lifetime and past-year versions. As research questions often dictate shorter time intervals, researchers have adapted the time frames of these instruments to their specific purposes without examining whether changing the time frame affects the psychometric properties. In this study, 3-month versions of SOGS and NODS were administered to a sample of 80 pathological gamblers (59 men, 21 women, mean age 44) seeking treatment at a state-funded facility. The 3-months versions had good internal consistency, good convergent validity with each other, with gambling behaviors assessed via the timeline followback method, and with measures of impulsivity. The 3-month versions also showed good discriminant validity with demographic variables and a measure of verbal IQ. Together the data indicate that shortening the time frame to 3 months does not seem to have adverse effects on the psychometric properties of SOGS and NODS. Thus these adapted versions could profitably be used for shorter time intervals, including as pre/post-treatment and follow-up measures in treatment outcome studies.     

Urge to Gamble in Problem Gamblers Exposed to a Casino Environment

Cue-reactivity has received increased attention in addiction research, though not for gambling in particular. We examined cue reactivity in 18 problem gamblers by accompanying them to a gaming casino and measuring their subjective urge to gamble over a 1-h period. Half of the sample was additionally exposed to a gambling-specific negative mood induction (NMI) manipulation via guided imagery. Overall, about two-thirds of the sample reported moderate to high-gambling urges during the casino exposure. Additionally, the NMI reduced cue-reactivity. Finally, gambling urges in both groups decreased over the course of the exposure sessions. These findings suggest that a majority of problem gamblers experience the urge to gamble when exposed to gambling cues and that the intensity of these urges decrease with time, especially in the presence of a gambling-relevant NMI. Cue exposure should be studied further as a potential tool in the treatment of problem gambling.     

The Temporal Stability and Predictive Ability of the Gambling Outcome Expectancies Scale (GOES): A Prospective Study

Previous research using the Gambling Outcome Expectancies Scale (GOES; Flack and Morris in J Gambl Stud, 2015. doi: 10.1007/s10899-014-9484-z) revealed the instrument has excellent psychometric properties and differentially predicts gambling frequency and problem gambling scores. However, like the existing gambling motivation scales, the GOES psychometric properties and predictive utility have not been tested outside of cross sectional studies. The current study used a prospective survey design to redress this issue. Eight hundred and ninety-three participants, drawn from the general community, completed the second wave of the gambling survey. Temporal invariance testing revealed the GOES was reliable. Furthermore, the ability of the GOES to predict gambling behaviour using baseline and concurrent measures of gambling outcome expectancies was demonstrated. Specifically, consistent with the Wave 1 results, the gambling outcome expectancies that reflect diverse reasons for gambling (e.g., social, escape, and money) preferentially predicted gambling frequency whereas the narrower range of emotion focused reasons (e.g., excitement, escape, and ego enhancement) predicted gambling problems. Considered in light of the Wave 1 findings, these results underscore the need for gambling harm minimisation initiatives to take into account the emotion-oriented reasons for gambling.     

Further Evidence Concerning the Prevalence of Adolescent Gambling and Problem Gambling in Australia: A Study of the ACT

Abstract

This paper summarises the results of a cross-sectional study of 926 young people (years 7–12, age 11–19) attending State, independent and Catholic schools in the Australian Capital Territory (ACT). The aim of the study was to describe the prevalence of gambling and problem gambling among ACT adolescents and to obtain insights into the social context in which gambling was occurring. Survey results showed that 70% of adolescents had gambled in the previous 12 months and 10% at least weekly. Approximately 4% of adolescents could be described as problem gamblers based upon the DSM-IV-J classification with males and young people from indigenous backgrounds found to be more significantly affected. Most adolescent gambling in the ACT was undertaken either privately or conjunction with others (usually parents or peers), suggesting that existing regulatory provisions are working well. However, the paper nonetheless suggests the need for tighter controls over access to lottery products, greater consumer information in schools to educate young people about the risks of gambling, as well as additional ethnographic research to obtain further insights into how young people gain access to gambling opportunities.     

Validation of the Chinese Version of the Gambling Motivation Scale (C-GMS)

The French items of the Gambling Motivation Scale (GMS) were first developed and validated by Chantal and colleagues in 1994. The scale then became one of the most widely used motivational scales in the gambling literature of the West. The present study recruited 932 Chinese university students in order to validate the Chinese version of the Gambling Motivation Scale (C-GMS). The results of a confirmatory factor analysis of the Chinese data supported the 7-factor model as proposed by Chantal et al. (Soc Leis 17:189–212, 1994). This study also found a second-order model with three major factors, which corresponded to three types of gambling motivation including self-determined motivation (for knowledge, for accomplishment, for stimulation, and due to identified regulation), non self-determined motivation (due to introjected regulation and external regulation), and amotivation. All subscales demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency, and showed significant correlations with gambling correlates such as problem gambling symptoms and gambling intention. In sum, the C-GMS showed adequate psychometric properties and can be extended for use with Chinese populations.     

Validation of the Chinese Version of the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS-C)

Gambling cognitions have constantly been associated with the development and maintenance of problem gambling. Despite researchers reporting high rates of gambling and problem gambling among the Chinese, little is known about the role of gambling cognitions among Chinese individuals (Raylu & Oei, 2004a). This is partly because there is a lack of validated instruments to assess gambling cognitions in this population. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to examine and validate the Gambling Related Cognitions Scale-Chinese version (GRCS-C), which was based on the 23-item Gambling Related Cognitions Scale (GRCS; Raylu & Oei, 2004b). Confirmatory Factory Analysis (CFA) using 422 Chinese participants (166 Male, 256 Female; Mean age = 32.28 years) from the general community (221 living in Australia and 201 living in Taiwan) confirmed that a five-factor model was a good fit for the data. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for the overall scale was .95, and ranged from .83 to .89 for the five factors. Concurrent, discriminant, and predictive validities of the GRCS (Chinese version) were also good suggesting that the GRCS-C is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing gambling cognitions among non-clinical Chinese samples.     

Examining DSM-IV Criteria for Pathological Gambling: Psychometric Properties and Evidence from Cognitive Biases

We examined the DSM-IV criteria for pathological gambling as assessed with the DSM-IV-based Diagnostic Interview for Gambling Severity (DIGS; Winters, Specker, & Stinchfield, 2002). We first analyzed the psychometric properties of the DIGS, and then assessed the extent to which performance on two judgment and decision-making tasks, the Georgia Gambling Task (Goodie, 2003) and the Iowa Gambling Task (Bechara, Damasio, Damasio, & Anderson, 1994), related to higher reports of gambling pathology. In a sample of frequent gamblers, we found strong psychometric support for the DSM-IV conception of pathological gambling as measured by the DIGS, predictive relationships between DIGS scores and all cognitive performance measures, and significant differences in performance measures between individuals with and without pathological gambling. Analyses using suggested revisions to the pathological gambling threshold (Stinchfield, 2003) revealed that individuals meeting four of the DSM-IV criteria aligned significantly more with pathological gamblers than with non-pathological gamblers, supporting the suggested change in the cutoff score from five to four symptoms. Discussion focuses on the validity of the DSM-IV criteria as assessed by the DIGS and the role of cognitive biases in pathological gambling.