Biomedical Research and the Commercialization Agenda: A Review of main Considerations for Neuroscience

This article reviews a range of issues associated with the commercialization of biomedical research and speculates on how these issues might apply to the neuroscience context. Drawing on existing studies of the impact of research commercialization activities on various areas of biotechnology research, the authors explore normative benchmarks for assessing and resolving issues likely to arise from the commercialization of neuroscientific research, including such topics as patenting, marketing pressures, and representations of research prospects.     

Biomedical research and the commercialization agenda: a review of main considerations for neuroscience

This article reviews a range of issues associated with the commercialization of biomedical research and speculates on how these issues might apply to the neuroscience context. Drawing on existing studies of the impact of research commercialization activities on various areas of biotechnology research, the authors explore normative benchmarks for assessing and resolving issues likely to arise from the commercialization of neuroscientific research, including such topics as patenting, marketing pressures, and representations of research prospects.     

Leadership,politics, and administrative reform at the United States Section of the International Boundary and Water Commission,United States and Mexico

This paper draws on theories of leadership to explain administrative problems at the United States Section of the International Boundary and Water Commission, United States and Mexico that led the U.S. President, in an unprecedented action, to remove the U.S. Section's Commissioner in 2005. The analysis proceeds from a detailed review of the history and organizational features of the U.S. Section. While popular accounts of the U.S. Section's leadership difficulties invoke an endogenous explanation of leadership failure emphasizing leadership traits and skills, we argue that this explanation should be coupled with an exogenous explanation for leadership failure. Focusing on the U.S. Section's altered administrative environment since the late-1980s, the paper argues that heightened politicization associated with its changing operational environment and mission increased the structural risks of executive failure. The paper concludes by reflecting on the theoretical and practical lessons learned from the U.S. Section's post-2000 administrative difficulties.     

Impact of Japanese investment in U.S. automobile production

The transfer of automobile production by Japanese firms to the United States represents a giant direct foreign investment. Using the disaggregated NIRA U.S.-Japan model in the framework of Project LINK, this article evaluates the impact of these investments on the U.S. and Japanese economies. The benefit in terms of auto production, capacity, employment, activity in supplier industries, and aggregate GNP in the United States is readily apparent. Japanese industry has incentives to move production into the United States to avoid protectionism and to guard against adverse movements of the exchange rate and production costs, but there is some loss in output and related variables in Japan.     

Types of rapidly growing counties of the U.S., 1970–1990

Recent economic growth and in-migration have led to an interesting patchwork of rapidly growing counties in the United States. This paper identifies 299 U.S. counties that were growing at least 70% from 1970 to 1990, a rate greater than one standard deviation above the mean of all counties. Using a k-means cluster algorithm, seven distinct types of rapidly growing counties, with meaningful spatial patterns, were found. Four of these clusters were primarily urban: smaller fast-growing cities in the south, large sunbelt cities, as well as both white and blue-collar suburban counties ringing many of the more dynamic metropolitan regional centers of the country. Also, there were two predominately rural clusters: retirement counties and several counties in the Intermontane West characterized by environmental amenities and isolated growth. Lastly, we observed a distinct cluster of several Hispanic counties in the southwest primarily along the U.S.–Mexico border. We believe these seven clusters present a remarkably clear portrait of the significant forces underlying the rapid growth of counties in the United States.     

Cross-border school enrolment: Associated factors in the U.S.–Mexico borderlands

This paper examines students who live in Mexico but attend school in the U.S., and looks into the factors associated with their decision to study abroad. Based on Mexico’s 2015 Intercensal Survey, cross-border students are described in terms of their number, location, educational level and socioeconomic characteristics. Subsequently, the study estimates probit models to analyze the factors associated with studying in the United States. Cross-border students are mainly U.S.-born and concentrated in Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez. The probability of being a cross-border student is positively associated with age, household income and having a household member who was born in the U.S. or is a cross-border worker. Cross-border students come from high-income households with strong ties to the United States. The decision to study in the U.S. is likely taken due to the higher quality of the country’s education system and to facilitate an eventual transition into the U.S. labor market.     

"We mentally ill smoke a lot": identity, smoking, and mental illness in America

Most of the history of the tobacco industry over the last few decades has focused on the conflicts between tobacco industry leaders who promoted smoking and tobacco control advocates who warned of the health consequences. Yet a view of this conflict from the perspective of smokers who are also mentally ill raises questions about how to frame public health policy for these individuals. Mentally ill consumers wrote to the tobacco industry between the 1970s and 1990s and expressed their commitment to smoking and to cigarette companies, despite their awareness of the health risks. This paper explores the relationship between mentally ill consumers, the tobacco industry, and public health in the United States through letters written by mentally ill smokers.     

从政治视角浅析美国的TPP霸权战略

在2009年以前,TPP一直鲜为人知,自美国宣布加入谈判后名声大振。美国积极倡导的TPP机制受最直接的经济利益驱使,但更为重要的是,出于其最现实的政治因素的考量。本文试图从政治视角探究美国在新时期TPP战略的政治意图,分析其发展过程中可能面临的困境以及未来的前景,并在此基础上总结出中国应从对内和对外两个维度进行积极应对,以减少由此带来的不良影响。     

The Impact of Social Ties on Depressive Symptoms in U.S. and Japanese Elderly

This study examines the effects of social ties (with spouse, children, friends, neighbors, other relatives, and community groups) on depressive symptom levels in U.S. and Japanese adults aged 60 and over. Nationally representative survey data from the United States ( N = 1,419) and Japan ( N = 2,200) indicate that having a spouse, or increased contacts with friends, neighbors and relatives was associated with fewer depressive symptoms in both samples. The effects of spousal presence were significantly larger in the United States than in Japan. The presence of children was associated with fewer depressive symptoms in Japan only, and this effect was significantly stronger among those currently unmarried as opposed to those who are currently married. We discuss these similarities and differences between countries.     

Tobacco Farming and Public Health: Attitudes of the General Public and Farmers

The tobacco industry remains a formidable influence in thwarting tobacco control efforts, in part because industry leaders have raised policymaker and public concern about how tobacco control might negatively impact tobacco farmers. In this study, we interviewed a random, stratified sample of 528 tobacco farmers in the Southeast and 991 U.S. residents about issues related to tobacco farmers. We found that a majority of the U.S. public expressed the belief that U.S. taxpayers subsidized tobacco farmers. This belief, combined with the strong opposition to tobacco farmer subsidies (15 percent thought there should be subsidies), likely play a role in public attitudes toward tobacco farmers. At the same time, however, we found reasonably strong public support for efforts to help tobacco farmers transition to new enterprises, although the public underestimates tobacco farmer interest in diversification. For example, two of three Americans believe that the government should help farmers make a living other than growing tobacco and over half thought that taxpayers should help pay for such programs. These data illustrate potential common ground for elected officials to consider as they attempt to concomitantly address the needs of farmers and the interests of the public. Ultimately, if the interests of tobacco farmers can be made clearly to the general public, and vice versa, pro-health and pro-farmer policies might well become a reality     

A method for considering the acceptability of novel biotechnologies for the control of brushtail possums

Abstract

Public acceptance and regulatory approval of biotechnologies is increasingly dependent on consideration of cultural, ethical and spiritual effects, and the opportunity for community involvement. The objective of this study was to articulate a means for researchers to identify relevant issues during the development of the technologies. It encompassed the substantive issues, such as safety, the provision of credible and adequate public information, and the opportunity for citizens, as well as stakeholders, to give society's informed consent. In this initial analysis of novel toxins and infertility or sterility-inducing agents being developed to manage pest populations of brushtail possums, several issues were identified. They included the risk associated with fertility controls entering the food chain, the severity of animal welfare compromise with toxins, and the adequacy of terminology used to describe pest control agents. This approach provides a means for researchers to acknowledge the issues contributing to public acceptance of biotechnologies during their development and with the involvement of those with interests in biotechnology.     

Creating High‐Technology Growth: High‐Tech Employment Growth in U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 1988–1998*

Objective. Growth in the share of high‐technology employment is critical to discussions of the postindustrial transition. Do new state and local technology policies create growth in the share of high‐technology employment? This article examines this question along with the effects of location and agglomeration advantages, identifying sources of qualitative growth in the U.S. economy. Methods. We examine change in the share of high‐technology employment in metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) in the United States between 1988 and 1998. High‐technology employment is measured from the BLS Current Employment Statistics Survey. The scale of state and local technology policies are measured from a comprehensive survey of state and local technology programs. A generalized linear model (GLM) estimates the effects of technology policies along with regional proximity, location, and agglomeration factors. Results. Technology grant and loan programs and research parks have direct effects on the share of high‐technology employment, along with private venture capital firms and military R&D. Research parks also magnify the effects of private venture capital firms, while public venture programs and technology development policies compensate for agglomeration deficits. Rapid population growth provides a more conducive context for these policies but does not directly influence growth in the share of high‐technology jobs. Conclusion. State and local technology policies compensate for and magnify the effects of agglomeration advantages, indicating that state and local government can play a strategic role in high‐technology development.     

Liability risk in the pharmaceutical industry: Tort law in the US and UK

This paper examines the extent to which product liability risk contributes to the high costs of pharmaceuticals in the United States relative to prices in the United Kingdom. Research on pharmaceutical prices rarely accounts for the impact of liability risk, and none that we are aware of compares the United States and United Kingdom. Drawing on a dataset of 77 brand name drugs sold in both the U.S. and the U.K., we analyze relative manufacturers’ factory prices in each nation. We utilize several proxies for liability risk including drug litigation history, the percentage of plaintiff wins, and controlled substance classification. Importantly, under U.S. law there are no caps on the amount that can be awarded to a plaintiff claiming economic losses in the U.S. However, payouts in the U.K. are limited. Accounting for market differences and regulatory environments, we find liability risk can account for a portion of the price differential that exists between the U.S. and U.K., warranting further investigation.     

Preservation versus motorized recreation: Institutions, history, and public lands management

The management of the public lands in the United States has been shaped by the long-running conflict between environmental and utilitarian values. Recently, changing social expectations have increased demand for motorized recreational use and access. Critics contend such use of the public lands is a threat to their ecological health. Yet even as motorized use draws increased scrutiny and challenge, some commentators conclude that the battle is already over—and recreational users have won. This article focuses attention on the U.S. Forest Service and National Park Service and contends they are predisposed as institutions to favor demands for motorized recreational use and access. It concludes that what is needed is an explanation that seeks to place motorized recreational use in a historical and institutional context that offers a more complete understanding of why such users might be winning the battle.     

Acid rain policy in the United States: An exploration of Canadian influence

This analysis evaluates the effectiveness of Canadian efforts to influence the formulation of acid rain policy in the United States. The findings indicate that, despite an imbalance in resources of power and influence favoring the United States, there still may be limited, but nevertheless important, avenues for Canadian influence in the formulation of U.S. policy. This study questions the generality of static models for analyzing U.S.-Canadian relations, and suggests the use of a policy process framework for examining the political dynamics in the relationship.     

Language Maintenance versus Language of Instruction: Spanish Reading Development among Latino and Latina Bilingual Learners

Latino/a children who attend schools in the United States must learn English well for schooling success. However, bilingualism is associated with achievement in both cognition and general literacy, which are core components of academic development. We examined the growth of Spanish reading comprehension among 101 Spanish-English bilingual Latino/a children in second through fifth grade in three urban U.S. districts. The students received literacy instruction in one of three groups: English-only, Spanish-only, and bilingual. Language of instruction had a significant effect on Spanish reading, but students who received Spanish language instruction were losing Spanish literacy skills relative to the norming sample for the reading assessment. English reading and Spanish vocabulary were predictive of Spanish reading, but socioeconomic variables were not. Heritage language loss is described as paradoxical because Spanish and English reading skills are intertwined and biliteracy is associated with better economic opportunities for Latino/as in the U.S. job market.     

试析美法分歧的历史由来——兼评基辛格《大外交》中对戴高乐的评述

基辛格《大外交》中对戴高乐的评价反映了美国外交学界对法美关系的基本观点,作为美国的盟国,法国的独立性源于历史上法国对美国的观感.从美国独立到二战结束,法美之间充满矛盾与纠葛,究其原因是美国对二战中及二战后法国的轻视,刺激了拥有悠久历史与文化的法国人的自尊心,激起了法国政界与民间对美国的不满情绪,认真梳理这段历史,对于我们认识戴高乐主义的实质与法美矛盾的本源或将有所裨益.     

美国的战略选择：合作平衡战略

美国的战略目标是要在全世界推进美国式的民主,维护美国世界领导地位。本文在探讨美国战略目标的基础上,对其霸权战略和合作平衡战略进行了理性分析。本文指出,美国如要采取单边主义,它将承受一定的成本风险;在日益凸显多极化的世界,合作平衡战略必将成为美国的一种战略选择。     

Revisiting the Impact of Prison Building on Job Growth: Education,Incarceration, and County‐Level Employment, 1976–2004*

Objectives. It is widely believed that prison construction offers significant economic benefits to local areas. We review the popular and scholarly literature and provide a quantitative analysis of claims. Methods. We analyze data on all existing and new prisons in the United States since 1960 to assess the impact of these prisons on the pace of public, private, and total employment growth in U.S. counties from 1976 to 2004. Results. Our results suggest that enhanced human capital is associated with employment gains and cast doubt on the assertion that prisons provide economic benefits to local areas. We provide evidence that prison construction impedes economic growth in rural counties, especially in counties that lag behind in educational attainment. Conclusions. Based on empirical results, this research casts further doubt on claims that prisons offer a viable economic development option for struggling rural communities. Possible explanations for the failure of prisons to help local areas are explored, including existing corrections officers moving to fill openings, adverse local impacts of prison labor, and paucity of local multipliers when a prison opens.     

Second‐Generation Immigrants? The “2.5 Generation” in the United States*

Objective. This article takes issue with the way that second‐generation immigrants have been traditionally defined. In most studies, respondents are considered to be “second generation” if they are born in the United States and if at least one of their parents was born outside the United States. This article considers whether the experiences and outcomes of those with one U.S.‐born parent and one foreign‐born parent (the “2.5 generation”) are different from those with no U.S.‐born parents (the “2.0 generation”) and those with two native‐born parents (the “third generation”). Methods. The article analyzes data from the March Current Population Survey (CPS) from 1999 to 2001. Results. The evidence indicates that the 2.5 generation is a numerically significant population, and that it varies from other groups in age structure, racial identification, educational attainment, and income. Conclusions. In studying the U.S.‐born children of immigrants, scholars should avoid lumping together the 2.5 generation with those who have no native‐born parents. The members of the 2.5 generation also should be treated as distinct from those born in the United States to two native‐born parents.