Integration of Behavioral Frequency and Intention Information in Young Children's Trait Attributions

Two experiments examined three‐ to six‐year‐olds' use of frequency and intention information to make trait attributions and behavioral predictions. In experiment 1, participants were told a story about an actor who behaved positively once or four times on purpose or incidentally. Children were most likely to make trait‐consistent behavioral predictions after hearing about several positive, intentional behaviors. Trait attributions were largely positive. Experiment 2 examined children's use of the same cues concerning negative behavioral outcomes. Participants tended to predict that actors who engaged in negative behavior would do so again, irrespective of intention, although younger children required more exemplars than older children. Participants were most likely to make negative trait attributions after hearing about multiple intentional behaviors; however, there was reluctance with age to describe actors as mean. Implications for children's ‘theory of personality’ are discussed.     

Children's Gender- and Ethnicity-based Reasoning about Foods

This article reports two studies that investigated the ways in which children use gender and ethnicity for making judgments about food choice. In Study 1, White and Asian 5- to 10-year-olds (M  =  7.37) were asked to rate how much they and others would like novel non-stereotyped foods. White children inferred that girls and White others would like the foods more than boys and Asian others would. An 'ethnocentric' pattern was found where children inferred that ethnic in-group others' food-liking would be more similar to their own compared with ethnic out-group others. These patterns were replicated with adults. In Study 2, a larger range of foods was used to assess White, Black, and Asian 3- to 8-year-olds (M  =  5.63), followed by gender and ethnic categorization and constancy tasks. Children from five to six years used ethnicity-based reasoning, which was influenced by their ability to categorize themselves and others by ethnicity. The role of social categories in food choice is discussed in the light of theories and research in category-based reasoning.     

The Nature of Children's Stereotypes of Popularity

The present study investigated what types of attributions and expectations children have about peers who they believe are popular or unpopular with other children. Fourth and fifth grade children (N = 135) were presented with pictures of several unacquainted peers who were described as popular or unpopular (or neither). Children were then told about several hypothetical encounters between themselves and each of the peers and were asked to explain or rate what each peer's response would be to that situation. As hypothesized, children had negative stereotypes about children who they believed were unpopular, while stereotypes about children believed to be popular were a mixture of positive and negative elements. Results confirmed past research in suggesting that a distinction must be made between sociometric and perceived popularity. Gender differences were also discussed, because the stereotypes held by boys and girls differed in several respects.     

Maternal disclosure and adolescent prosocial behavior: The mediating roles of adolescent disclosure and coping

In this study, we considered the impact of mothers' willingness to disclose about distressing events and rule transgressions on their adolescent children's willingness to disclose about similar events, as well as adolescents' ability to cope and to show concern for others. Mothers and their 12‐ to 14‐year‐old children (N = 125) were asked to say how likely they would be to talk about moderately distressing concerns as well as minor rule transgressions. Adolescent positive coping skills were also assessed. Teachers (N = 92) rated the adolescents' prosocial behaviors in the classroom. Adolescents' disclosure about distressing events and positive coping mediated the relation between maternal disclosure about distressing events and adolescent prosocial behavior. Further, maternal disclosure alone about both distressing events and rule transgressions was related to adolescent prosocial behavior through positive coping. These results suggest that mothers' willingness to talk about their own negative experiences can help children cope better and, ultimately, to show greater empathy and concern for others.     

The Relations among Theory of Mind,Behavioral Inhibition,and Peer Interactions in Early Childhood

The current study examined relations among child temperament, peer interaction, and theory of mind (ToM) development. We hypothesized that: (1) children classified as behaviorally inhibited at 24 months would show less ToM understanding at 36 months in comparison to nonbehaviorally inhibited children; (2) children who displayed negative peer interaction behaviors in a peer dyadic interaction at 24 months would exhibit less ToM understanding at 36 months; and (3) behavioral inhibition (BI) and the degree of negative behaviors during a peer interaction would jointly influence ToM development, such that children with both heightened BI and negative peer interaction behaviors would exhibit worse ToM performance than behaviorally inhibited children who did not display negative social behaviors. Both BI and negative peer interaction behaviors were associated with passing fewer ToM tasks. The data revealed that children high in both BI and negative peer interaction behaviors passed fewer ToM tasks at 36 months of age than those high in BI and low in negative peer interactions or those low in BI.     

Ethnic preferences and perceptions among Asian and White British middle school children

Asian and White middle school children were shown photographs of unknown Afro-Caribbean, Asian, and White individuals of approximately the same age as themselves, and asked which one wax most like them, which one they would prefer to be, which ones they would prefer to engage in various activities with, and finally, to allocate positive and negative traits to the three groups or to nobody. A similar majority of both Asian and While children selected an own-race photograph as being most like them, but only about a half selected the own-race photograph as the one they would most like to he. For sharing activities, children showed a strong own-tender preference, followed by an own-race preference. White children stated a greater preference for sharing activities with White children, then with Afro-Caribbean children, and least with Asian children. Asian children preferred Asian and White children the most, Afro-Caribbean the least. On a stereotypes test, similar trends were obtained; White children evaluated While children highest and Asian lowest; Asian children tended to evaluate Asian children highest but to a nonsignificant extent. The relative proportion of Asian/White children in school appeared to have little systematic influence on the results, thus arguing against the contact hypothesis of prejudice reduction in its simple form.     

‘Would Others Think It Is Okay to Express My Feelings?’ Regulation of Anger,Sadness and Physical Pain in Gujarati Children in India

Despite the recognition of cultural influences on emotional development, very little is known regarding emotion regulation in children from different cultures. This study examined beliefs regarding social acceptability and regulatory behaviors in 80 children (aged five to six years and eight to nine years) from two urban communities (suburban and old city) in Gujarat, India. The children's explicit reasons and their preferred methods of expression and control were also investigated. The results revealed that the children considered others to be less accepting of their expressions of anger and sadness and, in turn, they reported controlling their anger and sadness more than their physical pain. The remarkable congruence between children's beliefs regarding acceptability and reported behaviors was consistent with the notion that cognitions that focus on evaluations of others are particularly salient in guiding socioemotional behavior in a collectivist culture like India. Within‐culture differences were also imperative, indicating that the children in the old city considered others to be less accepting of all of their expressions, and reported controlling these expressions more than the children in the suburban community. These differences are discussed in the context of variations in broader cultural values (i.e., the extent of collectivist orientation and adherence to Hindu ideology) in the two communities.     

The Influence of Gender and Ethnicity on Children's Inferences About Toy Choice

By 4–5 years of age children can make gender‐congruent inferences about toys. Not only do they respond differentially to gender labels attached to toys, even without such labels they make inferences about toy choice that reflect an awareness of and identification with their gender in‐group. However it is unclear how far inferences about toy choice extend to other aspects of a child's social identity. The present study explored the influence of both gender and ethnicity on children's judgements on toy choice for themselves and others. Eighty‐four children in three age groups (5, 6–7, 8–9 yrs) were shown photographs of unfamiliar toys and unfamiliar children from three ethnic groups (white, black, Asian) and were asked to rate how much they and these children would like each toy. Boys consistently predicted that Asian children would like the toys less than other ethnic groups. Ethnicity influenced inferences from 6–7 years old where children predicted that white, black and Asian peers would like the toys differently from each other. Children at 8–9 years old predicted that Asian peers would like the toys less than both white and black peers. Analysis of differences between children's own liking and predictions for same‐ and opposite‐sex others revealed that they were gendercentric. That is, children predicted that a same‐sex child would like a toy more similarly to themselves compared to an opposite‐sex child. Analysis between white and Asian children's own liking and predictions for same‐ and other‐ethnic others found that only 6–7‐year‐olds made ethnocentric inferences. That is, same‐ethnic peers’ liking was rated more similar to children's own compared to that of other‐ethnic peers. Findings are discussed in light of cognitive developmental theories and previous work on the development of perspective‐taking skills.     

Shared Understanding of Parental Differential Treatment in Families

This study examined the extent to which children and parents have concordant views about parental differential treatment (PDT) and whether such concordance is linked with variations in sibling relationship quality. Seventy‐four 11‐ to 13‐year‐old children, their older siblings, and their parents were interviewed about their experiences with PDT and the quality of the children’s sibling relationships. Levels of agreement about the magnitude, direction, and fairness of PDT were generally low to moderate. However, sibling agreement about the magnitude of parental differential affection and the fairness of maternal control and affection were associated with more positive sibling relationships. Whereas family members were more likely to agree that parental behaviors were fair when they were concordant about the extent to which differential affection occurred, agreement about controlling behaviors was associated with lower levels of agreement about fairness. In addition, the frequency of family discussions about parental behaviors was not linked to shared perceptions of fairness. Results emphasize that capturing the multiple perspectives of family members is crucial for obtaining a comprehensive portrayal of family relationships.     

Interpersonal Relationships and Cancer: A Theoretical Analysis

This paper focuses on the effect of cancer on the patient's interpersonal relationships, and the ultimate impact of these relationships on the patient's emotional adjustment to the disease. In a detailed theoretical analysis, both the patient's reaction to the illness and others' responses toward the patient are explored. Concerning the patient, the following issues are discussed: (1) fears and uncertainties that develop as one attempts to cope with the diagnosis; (2) the consequent need for clarification and support; and (3) the barriers to receiving validation and support from others. Others' reactions to the patient are hypothesized to be a function of a conflict between (1) their feelings about the illness, which are predominantly negative; and (2) their beliefs about appropriate behaviors to display when interacting with cancer patients (optimism and cheerfulness). This conflict results in behavioral responses that are unintentionally damaging to the patient, including physical avoidance, avoidance of open discussion of the illness, and discrepancies among behaviors. The impact of others' behavior on the patient and the patient's subsequent attempts to solve their interpersonal problems are discussed. The paper concludes with implications for intervention and research.     

‘She is looking at me! Shall I share?’ How Chinese and American preschoolers respond to eye gaze during sharing

Previous research shows that the recipient's verbal communication about desires increases young children's sharing behavior. The current study examined how an adult partner's non‐verbal communication through eye gaze influenced sharing behavior in children from different cultures. We presented one hundred forty‐six 3‐ to 5‐year‐old American and Chinese children with a Dictator Game, in which they were asked to distribute resources between themselves and an experimenter. Children were randomly assigned to three conditions, in which the experimenter alternated her gaze between the child and the items that she wanted, or looked randomly around the room, or left when the child made decisions about sharing but claimed to come back later. Results showed that Chinese children shared more than American children did in the alternating‐gaze condition, but not in the other two conditions; furthermore, the experimenter's alternating gaze influenced Chinese children to be more generous, but had no significant effect on American children. This suggests that compared to American children, Chinese children may be more compliant with others’ requests communicated through a subtle cue of eye gaze. The study demonstrates important differences in sharing behaviors between American and Chinese preschoolers, and these differences are consistent with the cultural constructs of individualism and collectivism.     

A Longitudinal Examination of the Associations between Fathers' and Children's Attributions and Negative Interactions

The present investigation examined the concurrent and longitudinal relations between attributions and negative behavioral interactions in the context of the father-child dyad. Participants were 177 fathers and their young adolescents recruited from non-metropolitan counties in the southeast. Results indicated that for children, attributions about their father play a significant role in their negative behavioral interactions with their father both within and across time. Interestingly, father's earlier negative behavioral interactions with their children predicted children's subsequent attributions about their father in the longitudinal analyses. In addition, both attributions and behavioral interactions were highly stable across time for both fathers and children.     

Perceived media bias and third person effect: Comparisons of Americans,Korean Americans,and Koreans in the United States

The current study examined the third person effect (TPE) in relation to media coverage of the shooting incident at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (i.e., Virginia Tech.) in April of 2007. TPE refers to tendency to perceive that media coverage influences others (i.e., the third persons) to a greater extent than self (i.e., the first person). Three groups (non-Korean Americans, Korean Americans, and Koreans living in the United States) were compared with one another for their perceptions of media coverage. Specifically, this study investigated how much individuals perceived media to influence themselves versus the American public and the Korean American public. Additionally, the current study examined the extent to which individuals’ focus on the shooter and their perceptions of media bias were related to TPE. The results showed support for TPE in terms of media coverage resulting in negative feelings toward Korean Americans and Koreans. As individuals focused more on the shooter and also perceived greater media bias against Korean Americans, they thought that the media coverage of the incident would be more likely to influence the American public to have negative feelings about Koreans and Korean Americans.     

父母期望的自证预言效应农民工子女研究

自证预言效应广泛存在于社会生活各个领域。本文在概要评述自证预言概念的缘起、发展及其实现过程的基础上,运用质性研究与量化研究相结合的三角测量法,考察了农民工子女的父母期望对其学业成就的影响。研究认为,父母期望具有强有力的自证性影响。在“父母感知”与“孩子学业成绩”之间的相关关系中,有3/5是源于父母期望的自我证实。研究还发现,亲子沟通质量是父母期望正确性的调节变量,父母期望存在着言语报告和行为表现上的不一致。     

Mothering Mothers: An Exploration of the Perceptions of Adult Children of Divorce

It is clear that divorce shapes children's and adolescents lives in a variety of ways and that these are largely negative – they have worse physical and psychological health, they are less well‐off financially and have an increased likelihood of themselves divorcing. Aside from outcomes which are easily measurable, less is known about the ways in which divorce impacts on long‐term relationships ‐ particularly those between children and their parents. This exploratory paper looks at the relationships between divorced mothers and their adult children and finds that, like other studies, their relationships are marked by intimacy, but unlike other studies, this intimacy is neither enjoyed nor embraced. The participants report that their mothers were damaged by the separation, that their anger is ongoing many years afterwards. It is argued that these factors, amongst others, contribute to the ambivalent relationships some of the participants perceive they have with their mothers today and their uncertainty about caring for them in the future.     

Perceptions of Achievement and Achieving Peers in U.S. and Chinese Kindergartners

Two studies were conducted to examine perceptions about achievement and achiev‐ing peers in 190 U.S. and Chinese kindergartners. Children provided free‐narrative responses to story beginnings about an achieving protagonist in school settings. We found marked cultural differences. For achievement, U.S. children perceived more intellectual development, positive affects of the protagonist, and adult praise, where Chinese children perceived more social respect and their ability to help others. For lack of achievement in non‐achieving peers, U.S. children identified more negative affects, and Chinese children anticipated more negative reactions from adults. Moreover, although children in both cultures used non‐ability factors to explain achievement, Chinese children did so more consistently. Most strikingly, whereas Chinese children often expressed peer respect and desire to emulate the achieving protagonist, U.S. children frequently attributed peer negative reactions toward him or her. We interpret these differences as reflecting U.S. and Chinese cultural values regarding learning, achievement, and related self‐other perceptions.     

How do substance abusers and their significant others experience the re‐entry phase of therapeutic community treatment: a qualitative study1

Transition to re‐entry (aftercare) is a stressful event for therapeutic community residents. While several authors agree on the importance of social support during reintegration, few studies have focused on the experiences of re‐entry clients themselves and their significant others during this period. Using a case‐study design, the present study examines the re‐entry process of four TC‐residents and three of their social network members during a six‐month period, starting at the time of their transfer to the halfway house. Clients and their significant others have mixed feelings about the reintegration period, although both are mainly positive. Clients report difficulties in leaving behind the TC‐mentality and building up a stable social network; they are surprised about the frequent contacts with substance (ab)use in mainstream society. Significant others misjudge clients’ feelings about transition and relapse. Many significant others have a positive attitude towards the use of substances. The tendency in mainstream society to increasingly accept the use of substances intensifies clients’ need for early guidance in building up stable supportive networks. Significant others need well‐grounded information on the reintegration process and on relapse.     

When it is better to give than to receive: Children's giving and happiness

Humans experience emotional benefits from engaging in prosocial behavior. The current work investigates factors that influence the experience of happiness from giving to others in early childhood. In three studies with 5-year-olds (N = 144), we find that young children are happier from giving resources to others than from receiving resources for themselves (Study 1) and investigate when children are most happy from giving. In Study 2, children were happier when they could see the beneficiary's positive reaction, suggesting that empathizing with the beneficiary's positive emotion contributes to happiness (consistent with the concept of vicarious-joy). In Study 3, children were happier after they gave resources than when they watched someone else give resources, indicating that being responsible for prosocial action contributes to children's happiness (consistent with the concept of warm-glow). These results provide a critical step toward understanding when children experience happiness from giving and a foundation for investigating happiness as a mechanism supporting early prosociality.     

Home run or strikeout: The dynamics of public opinion on new sports facilities

Determinants of political support for new sports facilities are explored. We test to what extent the civic attachment and civic optimism of a respondent promotes support for new facilities. Survey data from the 2005 CBS News/New York Times monthly poll were analyzed to find variables that affected public support for a new stadium for the New York Mets and a new arena for the New Jersey Nets. Whether New Yorkers’ were optimistic about the future of New York and whether they planned to continue living in New York had a significant impact on whether they supported new facilities. Demographic factors that frequently explain political differences did not have a significant effect. Respondents with greater civic attachment and optimism were more likely to support major sports projects. The findings open the door for additional research on how civic attachment and optimism impact the willingness of community residents to support major public projects.     

Optimism as a Mediator of the Relation Between Perceived Parental Authoritativeness and Adjustment Among Adolescents: Finding the Sunny Side of the Street

Authoritative parenting has been associated with positive outcomes for children and adolescents, but less is known about the mechanisms responsible for such effects. Two longitudinal studies examined the hypothesis that the relation between authoritative parenting and adolescents’ adjustment is mediated by adolescents’ level of dispositional optimism. In Study 1, university students’ perceptions that their parents were authoritative predicted higher self‐esteem, lower depression, and better university adjustment during the students’ transition into, and throughout, university. Importantly, these relations were mediated by students’ levels of optimism. In Study 2, high school students’ perceptions that their parents were authoritative predicted higher self‐esteem and lower depression six years later when they were young adults, and these relations again were mediated by students’ level of dispositional optimism.