Pension reforms and gender: The case of Sweden

This article analyzes the effects of pension reform for men and women by comparing the outcomes in the system after reform to the outcomes under the prior system. The authors also study the incentive effects on labor supply. The size of the labor force, however, is also influenced by the rules for retirement, social insurance programs (e.g., sickness insurance and unemployment insurance), collective bargaining agreements, and seniority rules. Using a simulation model, the authors compare women's pension benefits and contributions to those of men in the new Swedish system and in the old. The analysis includes simulating the wage and employment histories of representative men and women and the pension benefits these are likely to generate under the old and new rules. After showing the results of this model, the authors describe and discuss the supplementary pension systems, that is, the negotiated collective agreement schemes and different pathways to retirement. Based on empirical evidence from Swedish and Latin America simulated data, the final section of the article discusses gender impact of pension rules and how to design pension, systems to ensure adequate pension benefits for both women and men.     

深度老龄化对我国劳动就业的潜在影响

对我国就业人口现状,2000-2010年城市、城镇、乡村人口就业速度,我国三大产业就业人口变化及人口年龄组劳动参与率变化的研究表明:若退休年龄不变,2030年我国潜在劳动力将比2010年减少14%;若男女退休年龄分别推迟5年,则2030年潜在劳动力仍将与2010年相当。然而,青年劳动力的比例下降快,农村尤其明显;2020年以后我国劳动力递减速度快,2040年我国60岁以上、65岁以上和80岁以上老年人口比例将超过28%、22%和4%。近20年我国经济发展很快,但面临老龄化的严重挑战,老龄化通过劳动力老化、社会保障、生产成本、商品出口、社会消费、货币汇率等途径,对经济持久地产生影响。     

Pension design and gender: Analyses of developed and developing countries

In this article the authors examine different ways of organizing and financing pension systems in China, France, Ghana, Jordan, Mexico, Poland, and Sweden. They explore the advantages and disadvantages of the combinations of different features with special reference to gender differences. Men and women have different patterns of work history, with women usually having a lower participation rate in the formal labor market, including interrupted career in response to child rearing, as well as lower wages in general. Women have a longer life expectancy than men and are more likely to become widows than men are to become widowers. These differences influence the financial resources available to women in old age, depending on how a pension system is designed.     

我国老年人养老金收入的性别差距

在人口老龄化和社会保障逐渐完善的背景下,女性从养老保障体系获得的福利相对较少。根据CHARLS2015年数据研究了老年人养老金收入的性别差异问题,对引起性别差距的主要来源进行了分解,对不同性别的养老保障参与和养老金收入差异进行了仔细研究。研究发现,男性老年人的养老金收入大约是女性的1.9倍,养老金收入的性别差异极为显著。根据分解模型的结果发现,养老金制度和退休前工资是引起性别差距的最主要因素,分别贡献了53%和19%,制度差距主要表现在养老金制度参与分布差异和养老金受益程度差异。为了弥补养老金收入的不足,男性老年人会通过劳动参与增加个人劳动收入,而女性老年人更需要依赖子女或其他亲戚朋友的私人转移收入。根据结论,女性老年人的福利状况远差于男性,在社会保障体系中处于弱势地位,应得到政府政策的更多关注。     

家庭负担、性别分工与贫困劳动力就业——基于湖北J县易地扶贫搬迁户的调查

基于湖北省J县易地扶贫搬迁户劳动力的调查数据,运用二元Logit回归模型,探讨不同类型的家庭负担对贫困劳动力就业的影响及其影响的性别差异。结果显示：整体来看,不同类型的家庭负担对贫困劳动力就业影响不同,其中,赡养负担对贫困劳动力就业具有促进作用,疾病负担对贫困劳动力就业有阻碍作用;分性别来看,家庭负担对贫困劳动力就业的影响存在着性别差异,女性比男性更容易受到家庭负担的阻碍。据此,应完善农村公共服务建设,减轻家庭负担对就业的阻碍;增加居家就业机会,减轻就业与家庭的冲突,以此促进贫困劳动力的充分就业。     

世界老龄人口的贫困特征与反贫困公共政策

老龄人口更易遭遇贫困的风险,面向老龄人口开展反贫困管理是各国政府公共政策的重要内容。世界老龄人口的贫困主要表现为六大差异特征：区域性差异、性别差异、年龄差异、家庭结构差异、种族差异及城乡差异。基于对世界老龄人口贫困特征的分析,老龄人口反贫困的公共政策选择主要包括：通过公共养老金计划向老龄人口提供“社会安全网”;延迟退休年龄;基于性别公平视角优化养老金制度设计;实现全面健康服务的可得性;提升就业质量,降低非正规就业;宏观经济增长战略转向包容性增长。     

OECD国家退休制度改革及对我国的启示

自20世纪70年代以来,OECD国家的养老保险面临许多新问题,诸如经济增长放缓,人口老龄化加剧,提前退休,老年劳动参与率低等。为了缓解危机,各国对养老保险制度进行了一系列的改革,其中最为主要的是对退休年龄的改革。尽管我国的社会背景、经济发展状况和人口结构与OECD国家不同,但是,借鉴OECD国家退休制度的改革经验,对我国退休制度的改革具有理论和实践价值。     

关爱抑或歧视——男女不同龄退休制度分析

男女不同龄退休制度是就业领域中的性别歧视,但是对此性别歧视的认定不能简单地归结为基于性别的差别对待的存在,因为并非所有的差别对待都是歧视。应该在对就业歧视的构成要素及抗辩事由进行阐释的基础上,对男女不同龄退休制度的歧视性进行分析。     

日本女性活跃促进法的出台背景、内容及其影响

由于企业用工环境的恶化，为了纠正职场女性遭受的各种不公平待遇，挖掘经济增长潜力，日本于2015年8月出台了女性活跃促进法，旨在提高女性劳动力的利用率及其在企业中的参与度和活跃度。在法律的推动和保障下，日本政府以财政补贴、行政奖励的方式，助推企业改革雇佣管理制度，扩大女性劳动力雇佣规模和职业领域，改进工作方式，支持女性兼顾工作和家务。该法对存在就业歧视的企业有一定的警醒作用，使企业意识到在反就业歧视中不仅承担着道德义务，也承担着法律义务。同时该法付诸实施后的一些积极效果值得其他国家关注和学习。     

Pension policy in the European Union: Responses to the changing division of labor in family life

In this articles the authors analyze pension rights in the national pension schemes of the European Union countries from a gender perspective by using the mainstream regime-type framework based on the work of Esping-Andersen. An important aspect of pension benefits is the extent to which they allow individual claims for benefits or ‘family’ recipients through derived benefits or household means testing. Individual pension rights refer to a person's own insurance record or residence-based rights whereas derived rights are based on a spouse's insurance record. From the gender perspective, the authors examine how policymakers have responded in pension policies to challenges due to changes in the gender division of labor and the reshaping of the family institution.     

老年劳动力法律服务的双重重心及其平衡

老年劳动力法律服务主要通过社会保障制度和就业保障制度来实现。以社会保障为重心的法律服务策略,基于社会撤离理论,为退出劳动市场的老年人提供了丰厚的退休金或养老金,并鼓励提前退休,其在运行中受到了理论拷问和现实紧逼。以就业保障制度为重心的法律服务策略,以活动理论为基础,以推迟退休年龄为核心,延长劳动力的就业期限,并促进“积极老龄化”的实现,但若单纯贯彻该策略,对老年劳动力的身心健康、企业发展、社会发展均有不利影响。我国在实践中寻求双重重心的平衡,将“完善社会保障”作为首要目标,将“保障老年就业”作为应对目前困境的重要办法。克服寻求重心平衡中的困难,还应加强积极老龄观教育,防止年龄歧视,保障平等就业权,多渠道实现养老保障。     

非正常退休的经济效应分析

从非正常退休的视角分析其产生的经济效应。以辽宁省城镇职工非正常退休状况对养老金收支影响的预测结果为依据,重点阐述了提前退休和推迟退休对劳动力就业．养老保险基金收支均衡、制度赡养率等方面的经济效应产生的影响,提出了财政补贴、扩大覆盖面、控制提前退休适当推迟退休年龄、降低工资替代率提高缴费年限等相应的协调退休年龄与养老金收支均衡的建议。     

中国农村居民经济地位的性别差异分析

在当前中国农村地区,男女两性在获取土地资源、继承财产、就业机会与经济收入以及参与家庭决策等方面仍存在一定差距。农村男女经济地位的差异受到多重因素的影响,其中,歧视和贬低妇女的传统文化观念、男女不平等的性别劳动分工以及人力资本等因素发挥着十分重要的作用。缩小农村男女两性在参与经济发展、共享社会发展成果方面的差距,需要进一步完善保障妇女权利的法律政策,积极宣传和倡导男女平等的先进性别文化,提高农村妇女的受教育程度和技能水平,同时推动城乡公共服务均等化。     

A Double Disadvantage? Immigration, Gender, and Employment Status in Israel

This article examines gender differences in employment status among immigrants in Israel, and how these differences vary across origin groups. Analysis of the 1995 population census indicates that, all else being equal, immigrant women exert a negative effect on activity in the annual labor force. As time elapses, the probability of immigrant women being employed improves but remains considerably lower than that of both immigrant and native-born men. However, after a few years in the country, immigrant women do close the gap with native-born women. For employment status in the last week, being an immigrant woman has a positive effect on full-time employment. A detailed analysis reveals substantial stratification by country of birth. Thus, the patterns of employment status for immigrant groups can reflect different levels (single, double, and triple) of disadvantage or advantage for women. I attach this stratification to cultural background and social values of country of birth as well as to economic and religious considerations, not fully indexed by the census data.     

转轨期前苏联东欧劳动力市场中女性就业变迁分析

本文通过对比转轨前后女性劳动力参与率、就业率和失业率、女性就业结构与性别工资差距的变化,对转轨期前苏联东欧女性就业变迁进行分析,指出了转轨期这一地区妇女在劳动力市场竞争中处于弱势地位及两性不平等的显性化。     

Gender inequality in childhood: Toward a life course perspective

Gender inequality does not begin with adulthood, yet scholarship has dealt most appreciably with indicators summarizing patterns for adults. Life course differences need to be recognized and incorporated into the study of gender inequality. I propose various societal practices (such as female infanticide, harsher punishment, social ceremonies, and inclusion) and beliefs (such as son preference, affection, and evaluation) as cross-cultural indicators of gender inequality in childhood. The analysis of preindustrial societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (Murdock and White, 1969) finds that childhood gender inequality is related to hunger, warfare, patrilocality, and the economic contribution and control of women. Childhood gender inequality shares some similarities with adulthood gender inequality but differs in theoretically relevant ways; for example, familial explanations, which are often relegated to secondary status in gender inequality theory, are high-lighted. The implications of focusing on childhood and the life course for gender inequality theory are discussed. Much of her recent work is on gender inequalities in the labor force, including labor force participation, occupational segregation, and affirmative action     

新农保对农村劳动力就业选择的影响

基于2009—2017年全国农村固定观察点数据,运用条件混合回归模型实证分析了新农保对农村劳动力就业选择的影响。研究表明,新农保会显著提升农户非农就业和创业的概率,降低农业规模经营的概率。从家庭资源禀赋来看,新农保显著提升了精英家庭和互联网接入家庭农户创业的概率,对非精英家庭和未接入互联网家庭农户影响并不显著。进一步讨论发现,信贷获得和风险态度是影响新农保就业效应的两个重要因素,信贷获得显著强化了新农保的创业效应,而风险态度在新农保促进农户非农就业和创业中的作用并不一致。因此,应充分发挥新农保制度对农村经济社会的“减震器”功能,但也要重视部分群体在就业创业中的“堵点”和“焦点”问题。     

妇女平等就业权利面临的困境及化解途径

主张妇女应放弃平等的就业权利的观点是不可取的;主张妇女应拥有与男子在结果上平等的就业权利的观点符合社会公正的要求,但在市场经济条件下缺少有效的实现机制;主张妇女应拥有与男子在机会上平等的就业权利的观点符合市场经济的操作规程,但由于妇女劳动力存在性别成本等方面的原因,它必然会导致男女就业在结果上的不平等,有违社会公正.只有通过努力扩大社会经济规模,提高妇女的劳动素质,开发适合妇女就业的岗位,积极鼓励妇女自主创业,消除雇主的性别歧视,建立性别成本的社会分摊制度等途径,才能在坚持机会均等的原则条件下,最大限度地实现男女就业在结果上平等的目标.     

延迟退休改革对辽宁省劳动力就业的影响

我国老龄化问题日益严重,延迟退休改革方案出台迫在眉睫。对辽宁省人口老龄化特征进行深入分析,运用模型构建方法预测辽宁省未来人口老龄化的发展趋势,指出延迟退休会给辽宁省劳动力就业带来的改变。将辽宁省的人口情况和危机全面呈现,体现延迟退休改革对辽宁省劳动力就业至关重要的作用,为辽宁省积极应对延迟退休改革做好支撑工作。     

中外被退休案例中的平等诉求

针对退休年龄的改革目标缺失性别公平问题,通过剖析四起中外被退休案中的性别歧视及其原告的平等诉求,以证明性别公平在此项改革目标中应列首位。退休年龄制度中的性别差异对女性、男性均可构成直接或间接的制度性就业性别歧视,而学术界和决策层尚有人对此缺乏性别意识和性别歧视敏感度,因此需要建立专门机构对法律进行性别影响评估,并界定就业性别歧视的概念以确定甄别标准。建议决策者用“若非因性别会得到与异性相同的对待”准则检测退休年龄制度中是否存在性别歧视条款。以避免改革方案沿袭歧视性规定而招致来自国内外的批评。