Child protection systems within the Danish,Finnish and Norwegian welfare states—time for a child centric approach?

This article explores the relationship between the child protection systems and the Nordic welfare state in Denmark, Finland and Norway. Despite an ideological focus on prevention and provision of a fair amount of universal services and in-home child protection services for families and children, there is, nevertheless, a relatively high number of children in the child protection system, even children placed out of their home. The outcome of child protection seems to be relatively poor. One of the problems in the present child protection systems is related to questionable service provision within the system. Other problems are about the normative foundation for the system, for example, family orientation and the least intrusive principle. Such principles are closely related to the logic of universal services, and may as such ignore the diversity of needs, rights, risks and ages of children needing protection and related services. Consequently, many principles of the present child protection systems are – and will remain – challenged by a child-centric orientation, in which valuing children's needs, rights and voice in situ are central.     

Trafficked children and child protection systems in the European Union

Child trafficking is a significant social problem across the European Union (EU). A discourse has emerged of state services failing trafficked children, who are portrayed as especially vulnerable. Less attention is paid to the socio-political conditions within the EU that result in exclusion. Such exclusion adds to the situational vulnerability that many children on the move experience and it may lead to exploitation. This paper is based on a review of 20 multi-national European Commission funded projects about child trafficking. The projects addressed the child trafficking priorities outlined in the EU Anti-Trafficking Strategy [(2012). Strategy towards the Eradication of Trafficking in Human Beings 2012–2016, COM (2012) 286, final. Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52012DC0286&;from=EN]. Projects were reviewed via in-depth reading. Protective services for children in origin, transit and host countries contribute to the conditions that sustain child trafficking. Systems do not have the capacity to manage the consequences of globalisation. Consequently, exclusionary criteria are applied on the basis of gender, form of exploitation and ethnicity. In this review, being an EU citizen did not result in any guarantees of protection. Better protection requires commitment and investment in preventative programmes.     

Forced child marriages as a form of child trafficking

Child trafficking and child marriages have been condemned globally as practices which are harmful to girls' health and which violate their rights. The significance of child trafficking and child marriages for a range of development outcomes explains why both are prohibited by law and given recognition as major policy issues in many countries. Despite international conventions and corresponding regional conventions and national legislations and the efforts of numerous non-governmental, faith-based and international organisations, many girls (especially in developing countries) are still trafficked and/or subjected to forced and early marriages and the measurement of this practice remains relatively unsophisticated. This paper demonstrates that some child marriages have slave-like characteristics similar to those of child trafficking and can thus be argued to be a form of child trafficking. This is because children in forced marriages coerced into these unions and are made to engage in acts similar to victims of sex and labour trafficking.     

Family engagement in the perinatal period and infant rights

The meaning of human rights for children is a contested issue; the notion of rights for unborn babies poses additional complexity. Drawing on data from a prospective case study of a specialist drug and alcohol obstetric provider and the statutory child protection service, this article discusses family engagement within a child-rights framework, and demonstrates how adherence to the "best interests" principle, in the absence of an appropriate service provision, excludes vulnerable mother/infant dyads from drawing on extended family support.     

On the margin? Residential child care in Scotland and Finland

Situated on the margins of Europe, Scotland and Finland are small countries which share similar demographic and economic profiles. In many European countries, residential child care can also be considered to be ‘on the margin’ of child care provision; there is ambivalence about residential care and a view that it should be used as a last resort. This paper examines systems and practices of residential care in Scotland and Finland, locating these in the context of wider child welfare policy in both countries. The underpinning principles of child welfare provision in both countries are similar—based on children's rights and primarily family-focused. In both countries there are also similar concerns about the fragmentation of child care provision and the cost of residential services. However, there are also important differences relating to child welfare provision and the use of residential care. In Finland, overall numbers of children in residential care are much greater than in Scotland; the age profile of these children and young people is very different; and the two countries vary markedly in the use of secure accommodation and custody. This comparative analysis suggests new ways of understanding the similarities and difference in the use of residential care in the two countries. It highlights the continuing challenge to develop residential care as a positive and integral part of a continuum of care services.     

Context and its significance in identifying ‘what works’ in child protection

The repetitive nature of the underlying problems with child protection systems identified by many inquiries into child deaths suggests that the ability to transpose successful strategies from one area to another may be contingent on more than a ‘technical’ approach to best practice. Current policy responses to failing child protection systems are arguably based on an assumption that practices that work in one area may be applied in other areas without reference to the existing base for practice. Drawing on our own experiences in the field, we attempt to explore some methodological issues relevant to the evaluation of service provision and the dissemination of effective practice in interagency working. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Fit for Purpose? Post-Qualifying Social Work Education in Child Protection in Scotland

Recommendations for post-qualifying training and education in child protection social work consistently form part of the political response to child abuse scandals. The influence of child abuse politics upon the push towards post-qualifying training and education has been consistent across the United Kingdom. Within Scotland educators have been quick to respond to the market demand for programme provision and there is now a growing number of academic programmes being offered by higher education institutions. Yet despite post-qualifying training and education achieving the status of ‘panacea’ there is little in the way of a national dialogue about what post-qualifying training and education in social work child protection should look like. The parameters of this have not been subject to any kind of national debate and the Scottish academic community has not entered into a professional dialogue on these issues. More crucially, educators have not engaged in any level of identifiable evaluation of their provision and there is an absence of engagement with the scholarship of teaching child protection at the post-qualifying level. This paper connects with these issues to question whether the post-qualifying training and education delivered by Scotland's universities can be considered fit for purpose.     

People for sale: the need for a multidisciplinary approach towards human trafficking

The article addresses the question of how to develop appropriate measures to tackle trafficking in women, based on the findings of a study of trafficking between the Philippines and Belgium. It argues that there is no easy or uni-dimensional solution to human trafficking, since it is influenced by a complex set of factors, often working in combination with one another. It concludes that control measures alone cannot stop the flow of trafficking in women and that a legal approach which relies solely on one type of legislation would be too narrow. An effective strategy must combine and balance punitive measures with protection of human rights, stricter border control and the removal of the root causes of irregular movements. Measures must be agreed and coordinated between origin, transit and receiving countries.     

‘Like a fish in a bowl’: parents' perceptions of child protection services

This research involved a small qualitative study focused on family experiences of child protection practice, commissioned as part of a Best Value review of child protection services in a large rural Midlands local authority. Qualitative interviews were undertaken with 18 families who had received child protection services. Findings were mixed in relation to perceived helpfulness of the processes of child protection interventions, with 50% of families reporting some positive bene?t and 22% reporting that such interventions had caused them harm. From the families' perspectives, factors that are associated with positive and negative outcomes are outlined. These include the availability of preventive services, crisis support, respite care, actual provision of services speci?ed in protection plans and an engaging style of practitioners. Conclusions emphasize the value of research focused on family perceptions of services as an important contribution to quality control and service development in child protection service provision. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Kevin and Peter: responses to two ‘preventable deaths’

European welfare states have substantial provision to ensure that children are brought up in conditions that meet the articles of the United Nations’ Convention of the Rights of the Child. In our analysis of two preventable deaths in Germany and England, we focus primarily on Article 18, which directs states to ensure that there is adequate provision to support parents in their responsibilities, and Article 19, which ensures children’s safety and protection. We outline the legal framework, which existed at the time of two child deaths: Kevin from Bremen and Peter in London, both young children who were subject to formal state supervision and oversight. The events – including the press response, their aftermath and the subsequent changes to social work practice through legislation and guidance will be examined. Our subsequent analysis will evaluate the extent to which events altered the balance between Articles 18 and 19 in the two countries, and the extent to which a Children’s Rights approach in this area offers new insights. The analysis will suggest that a rights-based approach offers some benefits for a comparative framework and understanding child and family social work, but also that it is not without some difficulties.     

The role of professional judgement in social work assessment: a comparison between Norway and England

ABSTRACT

Good quality assessment has a significant role to play in contributing to better outcomes for children in need of protection, so it is important to understand what supports best practice. This paper focuses on the role of professional judgement in assessment, and compares two very different national approaches. In England, governmental responses to perceived failings in the child protection system have led to a highly proceduralised and bureaucratised system and a corresponding down playing of the role of professional judgement. In Norway, professional discretion and judgement have been seen as key to the assessment process, and governmental response to criticism of child protection practice has been to support their use through provision of increased resources. However, too much emphasis on professional judgement and too little procedure may be as problematic as the reverse [Report of Auditor General of Norway. (2012). Document 3:15. Norway: Fagbokforlaget]. So this paper explores the different ways in which professional judgement is understood and addressed in each system and asks what we can learn from them in terms of best assessment practice. Acknowledging child protection as a ‘wicked problem’, we propose a model of Grounded Professional Judgement based on notions of epistemic responsibility and accountability to support the exercise of professional judgement in situations of uncertainty.     

Protecting the rights of the child in romania: Childrens rights perspectives on romanias 1997 child care reforms

This article analyses the reforms to Romanias child care legislation introduced in 1997. It uses two perspectives on childrens rights to link the changes to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. The first perspective reviews the new legislation in terms of childrens rights to provision, protection, and participation, paying particular regard to the wider economic and social policy context of the reforms; the second looks at the new laws in terms of the implications of childrens rights for the family, the community, the state, and the international community. Throughout the discussion, attention is drawn to changes in social work management and practice which will be required to make a reality of the new legislation. The article then considers the way in which the discourse of childrens rights has been used to justify changes to the law on inter-country adoption. It is argued that the new legislation has actually secured the place of inter-country adoption in Romania whilst professing to give priority to domestic alternatives, and that reference to childrens rights has been used to justify and disguise this outcome. The discussion thereby highlights the vulnerability of the childrens rights discourse to the demands of international politics.     

The extent and risk factors of child poverty in urban China — What can be done for realising the Chinese government goal of eradicating poverty before 2020

This paper examined the extent of child poverty in urban China, and how the structural and individual risk factors impact on child poverty in urban China using China Health and Nutrition Survey data. Child poverty is measured using a multidimensional deprivation approach. Eight dimensions that are indicative of children's basic rights as ratified in UNCRC (1989) are used to identify poor children, including nutrition, water, sanitation, health, education, information, participation and protection. The empirical results show that the hukou type of the family and parents' work units as the structural risk factors exerted the greatest influences on child poverty in urban China. These structural barriers for realising children's basic rights should be removed in order to achieve the Chinese government political goal of eradicating poverty in China in the next five years before 2020.     

Human trafficking of children in Illinois: Prevalence and characteristics

Not much is known about the prevalence or characteristics of children who come to the attention of child protection systems for human trafficking. This study used administrative data from the Illinois Department of Children and Families Services (DCFS) to compare the prevalence of investigated allegations of human trafficking with the investigated allegations of other types of maltreatment and to describe the characteristics of children with an allegation of human trafficking. From July 1, 2011 to June 30, 2015, there were 563 (0.0008%) investigated allegations of human trafficking compared with a total of 697,062 investigated allegations for all other types of maltreatment. These 563 allegations represented 419 children who were predominantly female (90%), African American (53%), residing in a large urban county (56%), and 14–1/2-years-old, on average. Just under two thirds (61%) had a previous investigated allegation of maltreatment in their case record, and just over one quarter (28%) had at least one entry into out-of-home care prior to, during, and/or after an allegation of human trafficking. These exploratory findings are discussed in the context of federal and state human trafficking laws for minors that have sought to raise awareness of human trafficking in the U.S., and enhance the ability of child welfare systems to identify and serve this population.     

Child protection fathers' experiences of childhood,intimate partner violence and parenting

Research on mothers in child protection families has revealed that they often have a history of childhood abuse. Research has also shown that a considerable proportion of child maltreatment co-occurs with intimate partner violence (IPV) towards the mother. However, there is a dearth of research on the childhood histories and IPV victimization experiences of fathers in child protection families. To address these gaps in the literature this exploratory mixed method study of 35 men associated with a parenting program in Australia investigated fathers' childhood experiences, exposure to IPV and concern for their children's safety. Although this study was conducted with a specific group of fathers screened for serious personal problems, the findings suggest that, similar to mothers in child protection families, there are some fathers within typical child protection populations who have histories of childhood abuse and IPV victimization. In addition, many of the fathers in this study tried to protect their children from maltreatment related to the other parent. The main implication of the findings is that child protection fathers who have histories of abuse and IPV victimization should be afforded the same support and assistance as mothers in similar situations.     

No ‘Magic Bullets’: Children,Young People,Trafficking and Child Protection in the UK

Trafficking of children and young people has become an increasingly debated issue in the UK, with official statistics often considered to reflect only the “tip of the iceberg” of cases. Identification of a child as “trafficked” relies upon referral to designated “first responders” and “competent authorities” within a National Referral Mechanism (NRM). This article explores the complex undertaking of identifying a child as “trafficked”. It is suggested that, like any other form of child protection, in cases of “trafficking” there are unlikely to be “magic bullets” providing immediate answers to why children are not always seen as being exploited and/or abused and consequently identified as “trafficked”. Drawing on findings from two qualitative studies into understandings of trafficking amongst agencies working with children, it is suggested that identifying “trafficking” of children could be enhanced if a broader range of agencies had roles in the process, particularly those working within community engagement frameworks in positions to form crucial relationships of trust with children.     

Domestic violence and child protection: issues in safety planning

There is strong evidence for the link between domestic violence and child abuse. Agencies' policies regarding domestic violence and child protection are critical in determining the dimensions of practitioner intervention, including safety planning for women and children. This paper explores the issues identified in research around safety planning where there are domestic violence and child protection concerns which was conducted with practitioners in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, in 2001. In particular, the paper focuses on three of the factors that influence practitioner intervention with women and children. These are: definitional understandings of domestic violence and child abuse; child protection legislative changes, including mandatory reporting and domestic violence as a child‐at‐risk category; and the NSW child protection statutory authority's response to domestic violence. The interplay between these factors results in complexities of practice for practitioners as they attempt to maximize women's strengths and minimize risks to children's safety. The resultant inconsistent response to domestic violence and child protection by government and non‐ government agencies suggests the need for domestic violence interagency guidelines. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

‘From awareness to practice’: children,domestic violence and child welfare

This paper traces the development of social care practice in relation to child witnesses of domestic violence. It suggests that this development has been dominated by subsuming the needs of these children into a child protection process. The paper outlines how this has led to significant (but often unclear) legal and policy initiatives which have failed, as yet, to be translated into practice. The paper argues that there are a number of important reasons why child witnesses of domestic violence should not always be assumed to need the response of a child protection system and that a future practice, legal and policy response should be based on a wider understanding of their needs. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impact of the Child Support Performance and Incentive Act on child support order establishment

This paper examines the impact of the Child Support Performance and Incentive Act (CSPIA) of 1998 on the establishment of child support orders for never-married mothers who receive welfare assistance compared to those that do not. We primarily focus on the first year of motherhood after the birth of the first child. Using Survey on Income and Program Participation (SIPP) data, we find that CSPIA changed the provision of service by 12 percentage points between these two groups, largely due to a significant increase in child support orders for non-welfare families; CSPIA did not substantially alter the order establishment rate for families receiving welfare.