Evaluation of Verbal Behavior in Older Adults

Approximately 5% of older adults have a dementia diagnosis, and language deterioration is commonly associated with this disorder (Kempler, 2005). Several instruments have been developed to diagnose dementia and assess language capabilities of elderly adults. However, none of these instruments take a functional approach to language assessment as described by Skinner (1957). The purpose of this study was to develop and evaluate a function-based assessment for language deficits of older adults. Thirty-one participants were categorized into a control group (n  =  15) and a dementia group (n  =  16) based on their score on the Dementia Rating Scale-2. Individuals with dementia performed significantly worse on the tact assessment than those without dementia. Participants from both groups performed better on measures of tacts than intraverbals or mands, even though topographically identical responses were required in these assessments. The data provide support for Skinner''s conceptualization of functionally independent verbal operants.     

Minority language revitalization and educational assessment: Do language‐related factors impact performance?

In contexts of minority language revitalization, educational assessment should consider the effect of language‐related factors on performance. Student score comparisons might be unfair if assessment does not take into account the student's language background, language of instruction or the level of minority language standardization. Including language‐related variables in assessment may improve validity, reduce sociolinguistic bias, and make it possible to monitor the progress of the revitalization plans. In this study, we present research conducted in the Basque Autonomous Community, where Spanish and Basque co‐exist. Based on population data (N = 16,270) from a study of fourth‐grade students, results show a positive relationship between the percentage of minority language speakers in the school catchment area and mathematical competence. Results also highlight differences in performance as a function of sociolinguistic groups based on the combination of family language and instruction language, showing better average performance for the Basque‐Basque group.     

Psychometric Evaluation and Discussions of English Language Learners’ Listening Comprehension

The importance of listening in the context of English language acquisition is gaining acceptance, but its unique attributes in language performance, while substantively and qualitatively justifiable, are generally not psychometrically defined. This article psychometrically supports listening as a distinct domain among the three other domains of language learning—reading, writing, and speaking—through the analysis of listening data from a large-scale K-12 English language proficiency assessment. Student responses in this study were compared on the basis of cognitive, metacognitive, and other learning strategies between high achieving and low achieving listening groups that were formed using a latent mixture distribution model. Latent mixture distribution and differential items functioning analyses together with classical item analysis were used to substantiate or draw attention to literature findings. The article also highlights the importance of social-interactive items that are inadvertently embedded in an assessment that is primarily created to measure academic language.     

Making a case for an interface between quasi-experimental designs and social impact analyses

This paper describes the community impact assessment conducted after Concorde operations were initiated at Dulles International Airport. Problems in the design and conduct of this study that make causal interpretations implausible are discussed. The present authors report an improved design to eliminate these problems as well as increase the external validity of the results. A discussion of how the careful implementation of quasiexperimental designs allows for treatment-related causal interpretations to be made is also included. Finally, it is emphasized that practical application of these data make it possible to improve the implementation of the treatment in communities receiving it at a later date.     

The Body Comes to Family Therapy: Utilising Research to Formulate Treatment Interventions with Somatising Children and their Families

Children and adolescents with functional somatic symptoms are challenging to understand and to treat. The challenges begin at the very outset of the intervention – with the neurological and psychiatric assessments. Patients presenting with functional somatic symptoms, as well as their families, frequently deny any emotional or family problem, and parents are often genuinely baffled as to why a child has suddenly become so ill and why no medical explanation is forthcoming. Families can be unwilling to engage in family assessment and therapy, and therapists may find that standard approaches to family therapy simply can end up alienating these families – the door to therapy is slammed shut. This article is the story of my struggle to understand somatising children and their families and to find a common language to enable us to co‐construct formulations, to agree to a treatment plan, and to work together towards a pathway to health. It is also about the role of research and how knowledge from different system levels – and most specifically about the body – may need to be integrated into the therapy to help bring about change.     

Multiple-family group intervention for incarcerated adolescents and their families: a pilot project

The Multiple-Family Group Intervention (MFGI) was developed to address the need for an effective and yet affordable treatment for reducing recidivism for incarcerated adolescents and altering the families' coercive interactional patterns from an affect regulation and attachment perspective. The 8-week MFGI program was conducted in two Indiana juvenile correctional institutions. The research study utilized pre- and postintervention assessments and a 6-month follow-up assessment. Data from both male (n = 43) and female (n=30) adolescents were combined, yielding a total sample of 140 respondents (73 adolescents, 67 caretakers). The 6-month follow-up assessment indicated a recidivism rate of only 44% compared to the national norm of 65-85%. Linear growth models were fit to determine the nature of the changes in adolescent behavior over the three assessments. Adolescents and caregivers reported that adolescents' externalizing behaviors significantly declined over time. Adolescent-reported internalizing symptoms as well as their alcohol and drug use significantly declined over the follow-up period, while caregiver reports of these behaviors showed no change over time. Adolescent-reported attachment to their parents, particularly mothers, increased significantly as did both adolescent and caregiver-reported functional affect regulation.     

Accuracy in communication. A contextual approach to child behavior assessment

This article analyzes the problem of accuracy of communication in clinical settings and argues that clinical language is replete with theoretical constructs that may not have shared meaning among speakers and listeners in mental health settings. It is suggested that mental health providers be trained in a contextually based data language. The value of such a data language employed in behavioral assessment is emphasized. The authors contend that events and behavior are products of the contextual environment; contextual variables are more accurately identified and agreed on; and the use of contextual variables in treatment intervention increases consequential validity. A developmental ecological approach, coupled with applied behavior analysis, are discussed and offered as a foundation on which clinical interventions should be planned and assessed. Using objective methods that yield demonstrable and meaningful outcomes can help improve children's mental health service delivery and the lives of children.     

The foreign language and intercultural competence teacher: the acquisition of a new professional identity

It has now become commonplace to state that foreign language learning should be viewed in an intercultural perspective. The main objective of foreign language education is no longer defined strictly in terms of the acquisition of communicative competence. Teachers are now required to teach intercultural communicative competence. The aim of the study reported on here was to investigate to what extent and in what way teachers' current professional profiles meet the specifications formulated in the theoretical literature regarding the ‘foreign language and intercultural competence teacher’. To answer this question, an international research design was developed, involving teachers from Belgium, Bulgaria, Greece, Mexico, Poland, Spain and Sweden. Our findings suggest that teachers' current foreign language‐and‐culture teaching profiles do not yet meet those of the envisaged ‘foreign language and intercultural competence teacher’, and that patterns in teacher thinking and teaching practice appear to exist within and across the participating countries.     

New directions in assessment for students with disabilities

Three influences in American education during the past decade -- increased parental involvement, an emphasis on accountability and student outcomes, and the refinement of assessment technologies -- are reflected in the 1997 Amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act [31]. Relevant assessment provisions contained in IDEA 97 are reviewed, including requirements for (a) parental participation in the review and planning of student evaluations and eligibility decisions; (b) the participation of students with disabilities in statewide assessments; (c) the use of assessments that have treatment utility; and (d) data-based evaluation of student progress. Assessment characteristics and methods that are consistent with IDEA 97 requirements are described. Examples include problem-solving assessment; functional behavioral assessment; and direct assessment approaches such as naturalistic observation, analogue assessment, and self-monitoring.     

Language educators’ regard for variation in late modernity: Perceptions of linguistic variation in minority contexts

This article investigates language educators’ regard for linguistic variation in a minority language context. It argues that teachers function as language norm authorities who may influence the linguistic practices and ideologies of students, and that this role takes on added significance in minority language contexts where access to the target language may be limited. Data are presented from a study on the linguistic ideologies of Irish language educators – ‘new speakers’ who acquired the language mainly thorough the education system. Participants’ ideologies on variation in modern spoken Irish were explored using semi‐structured interviews incorporating a speaker evaluation design. Although participants valorise traditional dialectal varieties of Irish, in line with established hierarchies, ideological frameworks are contested so that new ways of using Irish are beginning to gain overt acceptance. The results reveal the manner in which hierarchies of language variation in the Irish language are in flux in our contemporary late‐modern period.     

Improving evidence-based social work practice with youths exhibiting conduct problems through structured assessment

A key task in evidence-based case management of youth is the assessment of research-based risk and protective factors. In the present study we compare assessments of social workers using a structured assessment instrument with assessments of social workers not using such an instrument. Assessments of the exact same case—a vignette about a 14-year-old boy—conducted by 30 social workers using a structured assessment instrument and 30 social workers not using such an instrument were compared. The 60 assessments were also rated by independent researchers and senior social services managers, blind to whether an instrument had been used in the assessments or not. As hypothesized, using a structured assessment instrument resulted in the identification of a greater number of research-based risk and protective factors, and the assessments were rated as better in terms of general adequacy, quality, accuracy and potential treatment effectiveness, than when an instrument was not used. The present study demonstrates that social workers’ assessments of youth become more evidence-based, adequate and potentially more treatment effective when a structured assessment instrument is used as compared to when it is not.     

Extending the Assessment of Functions of Vocalizations in Children with Limited Verbal Repertoires

The current study examined the effectiveness of an experimental functional analysis for assessing the functions of emergent vocal-verbal behavior in children with developmental disabilities. Experiment 1 consisted of a systematic replication of Lerman et al. (2005). Participants were 3 children with developmental disabilities, between the ages of 2 and 5 years, with limited vocal-verbal repertoires, who could emit at least two clear vocalizations. Results indicated that for all participants, targeted vocalizations functioned as mands, tacts, or both. The purpose of Experiment 2 was to address some of the limitations of Experiment 1 while using a different experimental design. Results of Experiment 2 suggested that participants'' targeted vocalizations served as tacts, echoics, or both. Results are discussed in terms of the utility of this methodology for the selection and development of effective language interventions as well as implications for our current knowledge of verbal behavior.     

Applying the use of activity in the assessment of malingering: A case illustration

The assessment of malingering has predominantly been considered within the domains of neuropsychologists and psychiatrists, who use consistency of performance criteria similar to those used in functional capacity evaluations (FCE). The use of activity has traditionally been used in occupational therapy as an assessment and treatment modality with goals not always considered obvious and which could easily be used for diversional reasons. The appropriate use of activity adds an additional dimension to a layered approach of using multiple data sources and methods as recommended by FCE practitioners and neuropsychologists alike. The case illustration aims to explain the above using a layered model.     

Overrepresentation of bilingual and poor children in special education classes: A continuing problem

Sufficient research has not been directed toward the effect of language and dialect on the placement of children in special education classes. This inquiry considers teachers' choices of assessment materials and knowledge of second language learning in young pre-literate children. Data was gathered from a representative sampling of kindergarten-aged children receiving special education services in three urban Massachusetts communities. The inquiry resulted in a finding of a lack of information on the part of educators as to selection of proper assessment instruments, knowledge of second language learning, and consequent misplacement of young children into special education classes as a result of culture and ethnicity rather than cognitive or physical need. This review highlights the need for further research into the continuing problem of the overrepresentation of poor and bilingual children in special education classes.     

Implementing the Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP): Teaching Assessment Techniques

The Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program (VB-MAPP) is an assessment tool used with individuals diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder and other language delays (Sundberg 2008). The milestones assessment section of the VB-MAPP is used to determine an individual’s current skill level. The results of the milestones assessment can be used to identify instructional goals and objectives. The current study examined the effects of behavioral skills training (BST) on the administration of the milestones assessment by two educational professionals. The BST intervention resulted in immediate increases in performance for both participants.     

A Functional Analysis of Non-Vocal Verbal Behavior of a Young Child With Autism

The functions of an American Sign Language response were experimentally evaluated with a young boy diagnosed with autism. A functional analysis procedure based on that reported by Lerman et al. (2005) was used to evaluate whether the target sign response would occur under mand, tact, mimetic, or control conditions. The target sign was observed most often in the mand and mimetic test conditions, very seldom in the tact test condition, and never in the control condition. These results support those reported by Lerman et al. and extend previous research by evaluating a non-vocal verbal response using a brief multi-element arrangement with a single control condition. The implications for language assessment and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Does motivating language matter in leader–subordinate communication?

This study examines the relationships among motivating language, intrinsic motivation, supervisory effectiveness, job performance, and organizational citizenship behavior. It compares the effects of motivating language across different organizational categories. Of the 500 questionnaires that were distributed, 277 were found to be usable (161 for the airline organization and 116 for the army organization). The findings of the study contribute to the literature on human resource management, communication, leadership, and organizational behavior by showing the effects of motivating language on supervisory effectiveness and organizational citizenship behavior, as well as by identifying the mediators of intrinsic motivation. However, the study offers no evidence that motivating language has an effect on job performance. The study also notes that, regardless of whether a person is in an army or airline organization, motivating language can produce the same result and does not vary much across cultures.     

Training care managers in risk assessment: Outcomes of an in-service training programme

Despite a recognition that social service workers require training in risk assessment, it would appear that there currently exists minimal information regarding appropriate models for risk assessment to underpin care managers' practice and, as a result, minimal discussion to inform considerations regarding appropriate training in this area. To date, not one study has appeared in the literature specifically examining whether in-service training provided to care managers actually results in changes to their work practices. This study provides results from an evaluation of an in-service training programme in risk assessment and demonstrates that the training had minimal impact on trainee behaviours. A number of reasons are offered as to why the training failed to transfer to practice; chief amongst these being insufficient time to learn the content of the training and factors associated with the specific work environment. Importantly, the particular model of risk assessment taught on the training programme was considered by care managers as far too time consuming and complicated to use, given the demands on their time and heavy workloads. It is suggested that if this particular risk assessment model is to be adopted by care managers, social services departments must ensure that such training is of appropriate duration to enable skills to be learnt, and that workplace contingencies are addressed to facilitate rather than hinder the use of training. These findings are considered to have practical significance for the design of similar short duration training programmes within social services.     

Transfer of the Teacher's Role in the New Teaching Environment

The Old Man and the Sea is one of the most popular novels written by Ernest Heminway. We aims to put functional linguistic into practice and offer a new insight into the novel. Systemic-Functional Grammar is deep-going in stylistic study as it goes beyond language itself and deals with the social environment of language.