TEMPORAL DIMENSIONS OF YOUTH HOMELESSNESS

This article identifies three temporal images of the homeless youth population. The dominant media typification is of an ‘underclass’ with chronic problems. A dissident image contends that most young people experience only short periods of homelessness, and that there is a ‘high turnover’ population. A third account suggests that there are both ‘short-term’ and ‘chronically’ homeless youth, but few individuals in-between. It is a ‘polarised’ image of the population. This article draws on information from a sample of 1,410 homeless young people to assess these accounts. The article theorises temporal concepts and it explains a methodological issue called the ‘point in time dilemma’. The main finding of the study is that the homeless population is characterised by temporal diversity. The basis for the dominant underclass typification is explained, and various policy issues are discussed.     

Sexual Health Services for Homeless Youth: A Qualitative Analysis of their Experiences

The sexual health problems experienced by homeless youth bring into question their use of available sexual health services. Using a qualitative typological analysis, this study aims to identify sexual health services utilization profiles for homeless youth, and to understand the role of the homeless experience on the utilization of sexual health services. Individual interviews were conducted with 33 homeless youth (17 men, 16 women) between 18 and 25?years of age. Typological analysis identified four profiles: (1) a targeted use of sexual health services to determine one’s serological status following a relational change during the homeless experience; (2) a limited use of sexual health services to manage sexual emergencies that arise during the homeless experience; (3) a regular use of sexual health services to avoid the risks associated with the homeless experience; (4) a frequent use of sexual health services to obtain support when engaging in prostitution during the homeless experience. This study shows that the precarious and unstable conditions within the homeless experience incite youth to utilize sexual health services in different ways. These findings point to the importance of rethinking sexual health services to better adapt them to the different utilization profiles of homeless youth.     

Youth Experiences Survey (YES): Exploring the Scope and Complexity of Sex Trafficking in a Sample of Youth Experiencing Homelessness

ABSTRACT

In the United States, sex trafficking victims have been identified at ages across the lifespan but young persons (under age 25) have been found to have unique vulnerabilities. At-risk youth, such as those who run away from home or those experiencing homelessness, are also at an increased risk of sexual exploitation. To better understand the scope and complexity of sex trafficking among these at-risk youth, a convenience sample of 131 homeless youth aged 12 to 25 years old experiencing homelessness recruited from Kentuckiana youth service providers completed an enhanced version of the Youth Experiences Survey (YES). Univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted. Results indicated that 41.2% of the homeless youth were victims of sex trafficking. The sex trafficked youth were more likely to report previous self-harm behaviors, suicide attempts, and substance use. This study not only provides support for improved service delivery, but also provides essential statistics that should inform internal policy and procedures for youth serving agencies in Kentucky and Indiana. Findings highlight a need for trauma-informed interventions designed to treat not only females but also males and LGBTQ youth. Additionally, service providers should consider partnering with victim providers and clinicians to offer therapeutic groups, individual therapy, and supportive services that increase prevention, education, and wraparound care for clients. In regards to future research, findings point towards a need to better understand the role that trauma and adverse childhood experiences may play in making young people vulnerable to sex trafficking, and encourage the need for testing prevention and early intervention practices among vulnerable youth.     

Homeless young people,families and change: family support as a facilitator to exiting homelessness

The families of homeless young people are most often portrayed as a precipitating factor in their homelessness. However, recent studies, particularly those taking a longitudinal approach, have drawn attention to the enabling role of family members and their positive influence on the housing trajectories of homeless youth. Drawing on selected findings from an ongoing longitudinal qualitative study of homeless young people in Dublin, Ireland, this paper aims to build on this relatively fertile area of research. We demonstrate the supportive role of the families of young people who experience homelessness (often as a consequence of difficult family environments) and specifically examine how family re‐engagement is negotiated and achieved. The findings highlight a number of dimensions of transition and change. Prominent among these is the importance of renewed trust and communication. Young people and their parents also had to accept responsibility for areas of life that previously served to undermine their relationships and were implicated in the circumstances surrounding a young person's premature home‐leaving. Tensions and resistances on the part of young people are highlighted, demonstrating the adaptive mechanisms at work as they attempt to re‐engage with family members. The implications of the findings for social work intervention with homeless youth are discussed.     

From Youth to Adult Homelessness

Governments have shown an interest in early intervention strategies to reduce youth homelessness, but critics say that early intervention programs lack clear outcomes. This paper investigates what happens when early intervention programs are not in place and young people progress to adult homelessness. The paper assesses the ‘social adaptation’ hypothesis that the longer young people are homeless the more they adapt to homelessness as a way of life. The paper uses information on 1,677 individuals who first became homeless when they were 18 or younger. Three‐quarters of the sample had progressed to adult homelessness (defined as 25 or older) and one‐quarter were now young adults aged 19 to 24. The findings confirm that the longer people are homeless, the more difficult it becomes to get out of homelessness. However, the social adaptation account overstates the extent to which people accept homelessness as a ‘way of life‘. People can return to conventional accommodation if they are given long‐term support. The paper concludes with three policy recommendations.     

Leaving an Institution in Flanders (Belgium): A Road to Homelessness?

People living in an institution will leave this residential context one day and have to proceed to a stable independent way of living. This transition is not without difficulties as it turns out this socially vulnerable group runs an increased risk of becoming homeless. Research in Flanders (Belgium) has shown that a considerable share of the homeless population has previously stayed in an institutional setting, mostly in youth care (48.7%), psychiatric (34.4%) and penitentiary (33.1%) institutions. Moreover, the share of homeless people with a history in one of these institutions has increased in the past decades. Institution leavers, face at least three obstacles to a stable housing situation in Flanders: a lack of affordable housing, a lack of access to (non-residential) social assistance and personal difficulties in coping with living independently. Yet, there are several programs that support institution leavers and prepare them for the transition to an independent living situation and legal developments that strengthen their position in society and on the housing market. In this paper, we explore these initiatives and developments in three case studies (Antwerp, Ghent and Leuven). Based on in-depth interviews with “street-level bureaucrats” who work in these institutions (youth care, psychiatric and penitentiary settings), social support services and social housing organizations, we reconstruct the pathways of institution leavers to the housing market, the support they receive and the experienced difficulties.     

AIDS Risk Behaviors among American and Australian Homeless Youth

We examined HIV/AIDS risk behaviors among homeless youth in cross-national data collected in Melbourne, Australia ( n = 398), and Los Angeles, California ( n = 498). Using structural equation modeling, we found that the Australian youth reported greater involvement in AIDS risk behaviors than the American youth and the Australian youth were more involved in intervening risk factors that promote risk behaviors and less involved with protective factors that reduce risk behaviors. Youth reporting the highest rates of delinquent behaviors also had peers engaging in delinquent acts, used alcohol and marijuana, and were more likely to utilize social services. These findings underscore the importance of having a service sector that is able to adequately address the needs of homeless youth .     

Dual experiences of teenage parenting and homelessness among Native Hawaiian youth: A critical interpretative phenomenological analysis

Teenage parenting is a challenging venture—particularly when parenting while homeless. The present study explores in‐depth through case‐based analysis the lived experiences of three young homeless and parenting teens (one mother and two fathers). It is the first known study of teenage parenting and homelessness among Native Hawaiian youth, a key affected population. Interpretative phenomenological analysis of participants' individual interviews revealed three themes that characterize the experience of parenting as a teen while homeless: (a) They never raised me up (childhood experiences); (b) becoming mommy and daddy (early experiences of teen pregnancy and parenting while homeless); and (c) finding our place (current experiences of teen parenting and perspectives on teen pregnancy and homelessness). Implications for direct practice, social policy, and future research are discussed in the context of this complex reality.     

The Relationship Between Length and Number of Homeless Episodes and Engagement in Survival Sex

Survival sex is associated with many health problems, including increased substance use and HIV risk. Current research on survival sex among homeless individuals has given little attention to the unique effects of how length and number of homeless episodes influence engagement in survival sex. Using secondary data analysis from the Washington, DC, Metropolitan Area Drug Study (DC*MADS) (N = 783), the authors examined the relationship of days and number of times homeless to engagement in survival sex, while controlling for other sociodemographic and clinical characteristics. Results showed that length of homelessness and number of homeless episodes, as well as current age, previous drug use, depression, and institutionalization, increased the odds of engaging in survival sex. Results support current efforts on interventions to transition homeless individuals into housing as rapidly as possible. Service providers assisting the homeless can affect engagement in survival sex and its associated risks through creating referral networks for integrated treatment programs for co-occurring substance use and mental health problems while advocating for early housing interventions and increased housing retention. Further research is needed regarding the ways in which length of homeless episodes affects risky behaviors such as survival sex, with a particular focus on all age groups.     

Hidden champions: Exploring supportive family relationships of youth experiencing homelessness

The relationships that youth experiencing homelessness (YEH) have with supportive family members (i.e. those who provide them with social support) may be protective against risk behaviours and buffer adverse health outcomes. However, little is known about the nature of YEH's supportive family relationships and the type of social support that these family relationships offer them. Thus, we conducted in-depth interviews with 30 YEH to examine the type of social support received from family relationships and to explore the social dynamics of these relationships. We found that many YEH not only continued to maintain relationships with family members after becoming homeless but also received emotional and/or instrumental support from these family members. Beyond providing this type of social support, family members served as a source of motivation for these youth. Additionally, YEH contributed to their family relationships and gained a sense of connectedness in return. Lastly, we found that YEH's family support was influenced by their family circumstances and their need for autonomy. Collectively, our findings suggest there may be a need for interventions designed to strengthen relationships with supportive family members among YEH, who may derive multiple positive benefits from relating with the ‘hidden champions’ in their lives.     

Understanding lifetime homeless duration: investigating wave 1 findings from the Journeys Home project

The variation in the amount of time people remain homeless has important policy implications with respect to reducing long‐term homelessness and designing more effective early intervention approaches. This paper examines the factors that influence lifetime homeless duration in Australia using data from the first wave of Journeys Home, a new national survey of individuals exposed to high levels of housing insecurity that employs more rigorous sampling methods than previously used. Those at increased risk of long durations of homelessness over their lifetimes include people who had less family support in childhood, shorter work histories and lower education levels. We also find evidence supporting the idea that people who first experience homelessness at a young age are more likely to experience persistent homelessness.     

Social Context of Service Use Among Homeless Youth in Los Angeles,California

ABSTRACT

Little is known about rates and correlates of service use or the role that social context plays in service engagement among homeless youth. This study compares two distinct service areas and uses a social network approach to examine how environmental factors (e.g., neighborhood), social factors (e.g., social capital and network engagement) and individual level factors that relate to service use patterns among homeless youth in Los Angeles, California. A sample of 938 youth was recruited from three drop-in centers in two distinct service sites. Individuals were surveyed about their individual and social network attributes. Univariable and multivariable analyses were utilized to understand the influence of social-contextual variables on service use. Service use behaviors varied across site and service type with youth in Hollywood showing greater engagement than youth at the Beach site. Across both sites and several service types, staff emotional support was positively correlated with levels of service use. The site comparisons also point to the fact that even within a single geographic area, like Los Angeles County, client profiles and rates of service use can significantly vary. Future research needs are presented with specific emphasis on understanding the needs of non-service-seeking youth.     

Policeman or Friend? Dilemmas in Working with Homeless Young People in the United Kingdom

This qualitative, phenomenological study examined the relationships between residents and staff in hostels for homeless young people in the UK. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 homeless youth (residents) and 10 hostel staff (keyworkers). The interviews focused on how participants perceived and experienced the keyworker relationship. Qualitative data analysis yielded three core themes, or dimensions, describing central features of the relationship: enforcement versus support, emotional involvement versus distance, and resident-centered versus staff-centered practice. The findings highlight some dilemmas and tensions experienced by both residents and staff, and point to effective ways of working with homeless youth. Issues arising in the relationship between keyworkers and homeless young people are considered in the context of other types of helping relationships .     

Nowhere to go: Housing pathways of college students with foster care and homelessness experience

This study builds on previous research to understand longer term housing experiences in late adolescence and early adulthood for vulnerable college students. Using a biographical, qualitative method, we study high school and college housing and family circumstances for 27 students with homelessness or foster care experience enrolled in 4-year colleges in Georgia. We identified three different housing pathway types in high school—family homelessness, unaccompanied youth and foster care. Housing instability and frequent moves were common in high school among all housing pathway types. In college, students who were able to find low or no-cost housing and those who identified a foster care pathway in high school achieved greater housing stability. Others students experienced a continuation of housing instability that began in high school. Additional funding to cover the cost of on-campus housing would likely contribute to increased stability. Additional strategies, such as rental assistance programmes tailored for college students, may be needed to address housing instability for vulnerable college students. More research on the unmet housing needs and the consequences of housing instability during college for homeless and foster youth is needed to further a housing policy agenda that focuses on practical solutions.     

The Adjustment of Long Term Homeless Youth

This study investigated self image, depression, hopelessness and locus of control in 30 adolescents who had lived away from home for at least six months, together with relationships between maladjustment and poor experiences at home and at school prior to leaving home. Comparisons were made with 120 adolescents living at home who were employed, unemployed, at school or at tertiary institutions. It was found that the homeless youth were more depressed and hopeless, with poorer self image than all groups excepting unemployed adolescents. Maladjustment was correlated with negative home and school experiences. These results are discussed in terms of the debate between psychological and sociological approaches to runaway behaviour, as well as the need for assessment and treatment services to be provided for long term homeless youth.     

Examining the impact of family services on homeless children

This study examined the impact on children of services delivered through a collaborative initiative designed to provide supports to working poor families who are homeless or at immediate risk of becoming homeless. Overall, a number of positive findings can serve to inform the development of promising intervention strategies for children in homeless families and highlight areas for further research. Along with improved housing status, there was a statistically significant improvement in the economic self‐sufficiency of the families served, regardless of whether they completed the full programme cycle. In addition, youth self‐report data indicated significant improvements in externalizing and internalizing behaviour. The ability to combine programme data with school data for participating children also made it possible to explore school performance outcomes. Although these results did not indicate a change in participants’ levels of attendance or reading performance, there was a statistically significant improvement in students’ math scores. Moreover, when participating children were compared with a group of students matched on their level of academic performance at baseline who had not received housing or homeless services, no significant differences were detected between groups post‐intervention, indicating that services may help reduce the risk of homeless students’ falling further behind their peers academically.     

A study of social adjustment and incidence of mental disease in six generations of a family 1

While on the street, youth encounter many circumstances that have the potential to bring physical, psychological, and spiritual harm to them. Homelessness for youths seems to occur as a process or journey that appears to parallel a Rite of Passage Framework. This article develops a conceptual model called the Runaway Rite of Passage Framework, which may provide service providers with a way to categorize the stages through which homeless youth transition. Also, this article explores the typologies of homeless youth. Assessment strategies at the different stages in the runaway rite of passage are discussed to assist in identifying possible intervention buffers that may help the youth. The focus of this theoretical reflection addresses how to reverse the transition toward homelessness with strategies that will lead to stable living situations for street youth.     

The HOPE Family Project: A Family-Based Group Intervention to Reduce the Impact of Homelessness on HIV/STI and Drug Risk Behaviors

The HOPE Family Project (HIV Prevention for Parents and Early Adolescents) is an eight- session, family-based group intervention modeled on three evidence-based curricula targeting HIV/AIDS and alcohol and drug abuse prevention. The design and implementation of the HOPE Family Project was carried out by an established community collaborative board. The project aims to educate and provide tailored support to families and their youth (ages 11–14), residing in homeless shelters, regarding HIV and alcohol abuse prevention. The group model proved successful in offering an informal social support network for families living in homeless shelters and improving family functioning and youth mental health outcomes.     

Sensitivity to facial emotional expressions and peer relationship problems in Chinese rural‐to‐urban migrant early adolescents: An exploratory study

This exploratory study compared sensitivity to facial emotional expressions (happiness, anger, sadness, and fear) between rural‐to‐urban migrant early adolescents and their non‐migrant counterparts, and examined whether migration status moderated the expected link between such sensitivity and peer relationship problems. Furthermore, we assessed the role of migrant youths' perceived integration in these associations. A total of 169 Chinese rural‐to‐urban migrant (46.1% girls) and 157 non‐migrant (54.1% girls) early adolescents aged between 10 and 13 years participated in an emotion recognition task with videos of neutral Chinese faces gradually morphing into full‐intensity emotional expressions, while teachers rated their students' peer relationship problems. Migrant youth also reported on their level of integration. Results indicated that rural‐to‐urban early adolescents were more sensitive to facial expressions (as indicated by early recognition) of anger and sadness than their non‐migrant peers, and that migration status moderated the association between emotional sensitivity and peer relationship problems. Specifically, migrant youths reported more peer relationship problems in the presence of heightened sensitivity to anger and sadness. In addition, less integration strengthened the association between increased sensitivity to anger and peer relationship problems in the migrant group. Although further research is warranted, our findings suggest that the interplay between hypervigilance to negative facial emotional expressions and low levels of integration may contribute to explaining peer relationship problems among Chinese rural‐to‐urban migrant youth.     

Marginalized Mothers: Parenting Without a Home

The authors of this study used participatory and interpretive methods to capture the lived experience, strengths, and needs of homeless mothers. The interview data obtained challenge unfounded stereotypes and provide information about women's coping behaviors and resilience. The findings were developed in collaboration with shelter guests and staff and have important implications for public and university policy and shelter programs. For example, researchers need to become more aware of the limitations of current psychological theories and assessment tools designed to measure "effective coping" in disenfranchised individuals. To accomplish this goal, increased collaboration among researchers, activists, policy makers, and homeless families is recommended (e.g., by instituting roundtable discussions as a standard part of shelter programs). It is also suggested that professional staff who work with women living in poverty avoid using deficit-oriented, victim-based models of intervention, and that staff provide women with opportunities to participate in the development of the curriculum for parenting classes.