Hungary in transition: a computable general equilibrium model comparison with Austria

We approach the problem of Hungary's transformation from a partially centrally planned to a market-oriented economy with a cross-country comparison using two computable general equilibrium (CGE) models of Hungary, 1977 and 1986, and one of Austria, 1976. These three models represent a continuum of small open economies and allow a “quasidynamic” analysis using static CGE models. We examine two types of transformation issues: external (trade liberalization, import price reductions, and redirection of foreign trade; “Dutch Disease reversal”) and internal (decreases in subsidy levels). Overall, it is clear that with Hungary's borrowing constraints, liberalization should not be pursued in isolation; a change in the tax structure is necessary at the same time. The results for Austria indicate that liberalization brings smaller welfare improvements accompanied by smaller increases in the current account and government deficits.     

Asymmetric price rigidity and the optimal interest rate defense of the exchange rate: Some evidence for the US

This paper analyses the optimal monetary policy under incomplete exchange rate pass-through and asymmetric price rigidity. In a general equilibrium sticky price model of an open economy we find that the optimal interest rate rule is to respond to all types of shocks in an economy: real exchange rate shocks, supply shocks and demand shocks. We concentrate our analysis on the interest rate defense of the currency. We claim that the extent of the optimal response of the interest rate to exchange rate shocks depends positively on the degree of pass-through and negatively on price rigidity. Therefore, in the presence of asymmetric price rigidity, the optimal monetary policy should be non-linear, and the interest rate should be adjusted more in case of depreciation of the domestic currency than in case of its appreciation by the same magnitude due to higher downward price rigidity and lower downward pass-through, which are observed empirically. We test this prediction for the US economy and find that the US monetary policy is asymmetric indeed with higher reaction of the interest rate to depreciations of US dollar than to appreciations of the same size.     

International transmission of monetary and global commodity price shocks to Turkey

This paper explores the international transmission mechanisms on the macroeconomic and monetary variables of Turkey and hence proposes some particular policy implications. The effects of monetary shocks stemming from the U.S. and the European area, and global commodity price shocks are investigated using a structural vector auto-regression (SVAR) approach. For the analysis, we use monthly data from 2002M01 to 2016M06 and we analyze the transmission mechanism in Turkey using two different SVAR model specifications. Our results reveal that shocks coming from the U.S. and the Euro area lead to significantly different responses on industrial production, consumer prices, real effective exchange rates, and the domestic interest rate, with the Euro area monetary expansion having more explicit and positive effects on the real economy. The global commodity price shocks affect the Turkish macroeconomic variables in a similar but much less powerful fashion than that of the U.S. monetary expansion. As our empirical findings point out that the Turkish economy is vulnerable to global monetary and commodity price shocks. This vulnerability necessitates moving to a sustainable growth path consistent with a sustainable current account balance and a sustainable private and government debt coupled with a strengthened macroprudential regime and comprehensive structural reforms.     

Transmissions of real economic shocks across the Pacific Rim economies

We use Asian International Input–Output Tables 1995 in measuring trade dependencies of 10 Pacific Rim economies within a regional general equilibrium model. We develop two sets of metrics in measuring the trade dependencies of the economies. First, we use final demand elasticity of exports in measuring the sensitivities of the economies in the model to autonomous changes in the final demand in any other economy in the region. Second, we use a final-demand-weighted index of export elasticities that are induced by variations in the final demand vector of any economy in the model as indicators of the strength of the shocks transmitted across countries.The estimated coefficients have important policy implications. First, these coefficients identify the most vulnerable sectors of the economies in terms of the export/import dependency. Second, these coefficients may be readily used in bilateral and regional trade negotiations. Using these coefficients, policy makers can provide mutual trade concessions in dampening the effects of real and financial shocks transmitted from the trading partners.     

Energy supply shocks: Macroeconomic consequences for Ukraine

In exploring the short-term macroeconomic effects of energy supply shocks in Ukraine, this paper relies on the simplifying assumption that enterprises face economic regulation but not ownership uncertainty or a soft budget constraint that would adversely affect their behavior. In a sense, it assumes that Ukraine's economy is already at the second stage of reform, when ownership, contract-enforcement, and hard budget constraint questions are less of an issue. Under these assumptions and if real wages are protected, the analysis yields clear messages. Protecting the domestic economy by not passing through external price increases may cushion the decline in production and social welfare, but at a heavy cost to savings and investment; not only does it postpone adjustment and the emergence of a competitive economy, but it also deprives the economy of investible resources. Passing through external price increases while maintaining a fixed-price regime may improve the mobilization of resources but at a heavy cost to output and welfare, because it induces a heavy contraction in activity. Liberalizing prices in the nonenergy sectors in conjunction with passing through external price increases allows these sectors to generate the larger resource transfers required by a deteriorating terms of trade, in turn pulling up output; the economy can settle at a higher level of activity and welfare than in the presence of fixed prices. The conclusion is that Ukraine must clarify ownership and contract-enforcement issues as well as harden the budget constraints of enterprises as rapidly as possible, liberalize nonenergy prices at a minimum, and begin adjusting domestic energy prices to reflect the opportunity cost of these resources. Since the fall of 1994, Ukraine has proceeded to liberalize its price and trade regime, which should bring the economy a long way to recovery as outlined in this paper.     

Measuring the economic impacts of recent oil price shocks on oil-dependent economy: evidence from Malaysia

This paper examines the economy-wide impacts of recent oil price shocks on the Malaysian economy. To achieve this objective, an integrated methodological framework that combines econometric and input–output models is utilized to assess the impacts of an oil price shock on tax revenues, employment, labor income and gross domestic product (GDP). Our results reveal that the recent oil price shocks significantly affects these macroeconomic variables. The decline in oil prices from 2015 to 2016 reduces tax revenues by 10.5%, lower GDP by 1.9% and increases the unemployment rate by 0.3%. As such, the sharp crunch in oil prices serves as a reminder to policymakers on the vulnerability inherent in overreliance on oil exports and the urgent need to diversify the economy.     

Trade liberalization in textiles: Policy effects in an import-competing industry

I trace the dynamic impact of removal of textile quotas in the US on output, employment and plant closure in that industry. A dynamic theoretical model of firm-level decision-making is estimated with US Census manufacturing data and with industry-level demand-side data. Simulations performed with the estimated model provide a decomposition of the historical record into parts attributable to import competition, to technological progress, and to a secular real-wage increase. Plant closure and a fall in domestic prices are largely associated with technological progress, while downsizing, layoffs and reduction in domestic market share are associated with trade liberalization. The market-clearing domestic price of textiles is identified as a crucial channel in transmitting technology or import price shocks to layoffs and plant closure.     

The Simplest Dynamic General-Equilibrium Model of an Open Economy

This paper presents the simplest possible general-equilibrium model of an open economy in which producer and consumer decisions are both intra- and intertemporally consistent. Consumers maximize the present value of the utility of consumption; producers maximize the present value of profits. The model solves for the set of intertemporally consistent prices. The parsimonious structure of the model is achieved by dividing the economy into two producing sectors—exports and domestic goods—and two consumed goods—imports and domestic goods. As a result, there is only one endogenous price per period to be solved for (the price of the domestic good), although “structural” questions, such as the evolution of the real exchange rate, can be posed with the model. Furthermore, with this structural breakdown, the model can be calibrated with national accounts data only. In the paper, we show how to calibrate such a model (including specification of an adjustment-cost function, to avoid “bang-bang” behavior) and use the model to examine various questions where intertemporal issues are important, including terms-of-trade shocks and tariff reform.     

Assessing non-tariff barriers in Syria

International trade in Syria is highly regulated through a combination of tariffs and non-tariff barriers. At 8% of the value of imports on average, effective tariffs are relatively low. However, non-tariff barriers to trade actually make Syria's trade restrictiveness very high. Comparing world and domestic prices of imports indeed suggests that non-tariff barriers increase the domestic price of imported goods by 17% on average, notably the result of significant quantitative restrictions. Using a computable general equilibrium model, the costs of NTBs on the Syrian economy are assessed. Simulations suggest that reallocation gains resulting from a complete removal of NTBs could be substantial. Accordingly, the key message from the analysis is that trade reform if it focuses only on tariff reduction will have limited growth benefits. On the contrary, if the Government abolishes the widespread non-tariff barriers to trade, including the elimination of quantitative trade restrictions, trade policy can become the central instrument to redress Syria's growth prospects.     

Agriculture,trade, and macroeconomics: The U.S. case

The persistent appreciation of the U.S. dollar from 1980 through 1984 raise the issue of macroeconomic impacts on trade sectors as a critical policy concern. In this article a six-variable vector autoregressive model is utilized to evaluate the dynamic effects of macroeconomic shocks on U.S. agriculture, a key trade sector. The results suggest that the impacts are substantial. Expansion of the money supply or a decline in the real interest rate or the real value of the dollar has a positive effect on agricultural exports and relative prices, whereas autonomous inflationary shocks have negative effects.     

A dynamic-optimization model of foreign borrowing: A case study of Thailand

This article assesses alternative foreign-borrowing strategies for Thailand using a medium-term dynamic optimization model. The model has five sectors: rubber, other agriculture, manufacturing, services, and construction. All markets clear with endogenous domestic prices. The model solution is a set of annual borrowing and investment levels, which through a general-equilibrium system determine domestic output, trade flows, and consumption, and that are chosen so as to maximize welfare.This model is applied to an analysis of the historical strategy taken by Thailand between 1975 and 1981. We find that Thailand may indeed have overborrowed toward the end of the 1970s and attribute the divergence of the actual and the optimal borrowing paths partly to inaccurate expectations on the timing and duration of shocks and partly to government policies that distorted market forces.The analysis suggests that robust foreign-borrowing stratergies should be based on an understanding of the structure of the economy, its flexibility in adjusting to shocks, on expectations of future events, and on lender's behavior. The endogenous and simultaneous nature of the interactions of key macrovariables cannot be overemphasized. Thus, the borrowing strategy must be made consistent with fiscal, monetary, and commercial policies.     

The twin deficit hypothesis in Egypt

We employ a new approach to the twin deficit hypothesis aimed at enhancing policy making in Egypt. In contrast to the conventional twin deficit hypothesis between the current account, which comprises many items out of governments’ scope of maneuvering, and the budget deficit, we track the causal link between Egypt’s merchandise trade deficit and the budget deficit. We begin first by examining the conventional twin deficit hypothesis using a VAR model, which implies short run reverse causation running from the current account deficit to the budget deficit. Second, as cointegration exists between the budget deficit and the merchandise trade deficit, we run a multivariate VECM model which refutes the twin deficit hypothesis in favor of the current account targeting hypothesis. In policy terms, ameliorating Egypt’s trade balance would ultimately improve its fiscal balance as well.     

Planning studies with an optimal control multisectoral dynamic economic model: The case of Sri Lanka

This article investigates the impact of different development scenarios on optimal investment strategy and economy of Sri Lanka and studies the potential of applying control theory techniques to economic planning. The multisectoral dynamic planning model is formulated as a linear quadratic tracking problem. Targets to be tracked define the development strategies: economic growth, trade deficit reduction, food self-sufficiency, and balanced growth. Besides providing insights into these strategies, empirical results show that the difficulty in setting inequality constraints and ensuring nonnegative solutions could undermine the linear tracking optimal control technique for development planning.     

The impact of social heterogeneity and commodity price shocks on civil conflicts

Do exogenous economic shocks promote civil conflicts directly? Do they affect all the societies alike? The current approach presents a large sample panel data evidence not only on the effect of commodity export price shocks on conflict incidence, rather than onsets, but also on the joint impact of both ethnic and religious polarization and fractionalization on political instability. In this regard, we find out that in ethnically polarized societies, the commodity export price shocks increase violence. Nonetheless, in ethnically and religiously fractionalized societies (as well as religiously polarized), the effect of commodity export price shocks on civil conflicts depends on the type of income shocks and category of commodity. These findings contribute to the existing literature by illuminating the compound effect of both income shocks and social diversity on intrastate conflicts.     

2011年越南经济发展回顾

2011年,越南的经济伴随着高通胀在重重困难中发展,但仍然保持了较快增长,贸易逆差减少是其一个亮点。越南对外贸易和投资步伐不断加快,特别是加快了对周边国家和对非洲市场的开拓。     

日美贸易失衡与中美贸易失衡的对比分析——以产业冲击为视角

中美贸易失衡是继日美贸易失衡后美国在经贸领域的又一关注焦点,美国将中美贸易失衡与“产业冲击”相挂钩。通过从汽车和半导体产业入手,对日美贸易失衡中的产业冲击问题进行分析发现:在中美贸易和日美贸易的发展过程中,由于产业发展阶段、对外直接投资对产业的影响、贸易对就业的冲击、产业竞争与互补程度以及出口管制程度等方面存在不同,日美贸易失衡对美国产业构成了实质性冲击,与中美贸易失衡在该问题上的影响存在本质差异。美国以贸易失衡和“产业冲击”责难中国,并借此发动贸易战,是美国意识形态方面的固有偏见和遏制中国发展的托词,中国需要在谋划中美磋商和反制的策略、推动中国产业结构升级及提防美国发动金融战等方面进行政策应对。     

Debt, deficits and the dollar

This paper examines the relationship between the budget deficit and the trade deficit in the United States by presenting new evidence on the impact effects of debt disturbances on the exchange rate. Based upon estimates of a general two-country portfolio-balance model, we find evidence that increases in the U.S. debt stock have caused an appreciation in the U.S. dollar relative to the German mark and the Canadian dollar over the period 1973II–1987II. Correspondingly, this paper presents evidence on the linkage between the budget deficit and the trade deficit arising through the exchange rate.     

越南经济金融状况分析及展望

2008年是越南经济动荡的一年。通货膨胀和贸易赤字激增,随后发生逆转;经济增长放缓,预计2009年将进一步缓和,2010年将开始回升。预计这两年通货膨胀将相对较低,经常账户赤字预计在2009年有所扩大而在2010年将缩小。主要的短期挑战来自于限制经济增长减缓的同时,保持财政和经常账户赤字处于可控之中。从中期来看,政府需在加速推动增长同时又不能引发通货膨胀和使经常账户赤字扩大。     

论东北地区外贸发展方式创新

外贸发展方式创新,是我国"十二五"时期经济发展方式转变的重大而关键的任务。长期以来,东北地区外贸发展主要依据传统的比较优势理论,以出口数量扩张、劳动密集型产品出口和低价格战略形成竞争优势。目前,面临后金融危机影响,全球经济增长乏力、大宗商品价格高企、资源环境压力加大、出口难度增加,更显露出其粗放性和难以持续性。东北地区外贸发展亟待打破原有传统贸易理论束缚,创新外贸发展方式,即从扩大出口创汇转向提高经济效益上来,从粗放式增长转向集约式增长上来,从出口创汇型转向依靠国际化经营能力上来。要遵循国际贸易规则,创新对外贸易制度安排;发挥东北地区优势,开拓多元化国际市场;优化出口产品结构,积极引导产业升级;加强与周边国家和地区的合作,促进外贸经济协调发展;集合各方力量,积极应对贸易摩擦。     

A computational general equilibrium approach to the shadow pricing of trade restrictions and the adjustment of the exchange rate, with an application to Argentina

A general equilibrium model of an open economy in which there are ad valorem texes on domestic production and export activities, and import activities are subject to both tariffs and quotas is constructed. A domestic monetary asset, foreign exchange, and a corresponding nominal exchange rate are introduced and a numerical example of the model is constructed. The example is solved via the Scarf fixed point algorithm, first with taut quotas and then after having relaxed quotas. Various price indices are then used to guide programs designed to stabilize the trade balance against the quota liberalization. An empirical example, using Argentine data, is carried out to find the quota equivalent of a particular tariff.