‘Why would I want to be anonymous?’ Questioning ethical principles of anonymity in cross-cultural feminist research

ABSTRACT

This article focuses on anonymity in research, considering it in relation to feminist values. There has been increasing debate in the feminist literature on the universality of ethics, including reflection on principles such as anonymity. However, there has been limited discussion of the specific challenge facing feminist researchers to amplify the voices of women participants, but also to respect their wishes regarding voice and agency. Assuring anonymity can be empowering for women and girls participating in research, allowing individuals to share their experiences freely without concerns about attribution and its consequences. On the other hand, if research ethics require anonymity, this can actually deny research respondents the right to be heard and operate as a form of silencing. This article focuses on research in Bihar, India, where many of the respondents rejected the idea of anonymity. Upholding a feminist ethics of care and delivering on a feminist commitment to giving voice to women requires a focus on women’s agency in the decision-making process around ethics.     

Beyond anonymity: temporality and the production of knowledge in a qualitative longitudinal study

Anonymisation processes are an embedded, if contested, element of ethical research practice. Current debates, highlighting various challenges to anonymity, suggest the importance of situated ethics and negotiated solutions. However, the strategies adopted are necessarily mediated by the researcher’s epistemological positions. Longitudinal studies with their extended timeframes and intensive research relationships tend to amplify ethical dilemmas and highlight the contingency and fluidity of ethical processes. Here we explore how temporality intersects with epistemology in a qualitative longitudinal (QL) study of organisations located in a contemporary policy context. We reflect on the confidentiality and anonymity dilemmas that develop and change over time, the strategies adopted and the implications of these for the type of knowledge produced. We suggest that QL studies entail flexibility within epistemological frameworks. These issues have particular resonance and consequences for researchers in light of contemporary pressures around public scrutiny of academic performance and wider debates around public sociology.     

Challenging the techno-politics of anonymity: the case of cryptomarket users

Anonymity is treated as a problem of governance that can be subject to technical resolution. We use the example of the darknet to critically examine this approach. We explore the background assumptions that have been made about anonymity as a quality of social life. We conceive of anonymity as a way of engaging and maintaining social relationships in an anonymous mode. We draw on a study of darknet ‘cryptomarket’ users who mainly use the darknet to buy and sell illicit drugs, discuss drug quality and share information on safe and effective use. We identify the personal satisfaction that comes from interacting anonymously online, the challenges this represents for maintaining trusted interactions and how they are overcome, and the combination of technology and action involved in maintaining anonymity. We argue that attempts to promote de-anonymising norms and technology are based on an erroneous understanding of what anonymity is.     

Reflections on doing participatory research in health: participation,method and power

The author has reflected on her experience in facilitating three participatory research (PR) projects to identify key issues surrounding participation, method and power. The three PR projects in health, all undertaken in the same region in southeast Australia, assessed the needs of women who have experienced breast cancer, evaluated an Indigenous healthy lifestyle programme and developed and documented a model of coordinated care by a consumer group. In particular, the three participatory projects suggested that participants do not always want to maximise their own participation and may prefer external researcher involvement – relationships, confidentiality, anonymity and time‐impacted perspectives of participation. In one study, quantitative methods were selected and time and previous knowledge of research shaped participants' selection of method. In the projects, power relations were complex and issues of negotiation, inclusion, quality of research, agendas, roles and integrity are discussed. The lessons learned here are that participatory researchers can be open to differing levels of participation and methods while also comfortable with sharing decision‐making in research, even if it alters the research outcome.     

The Sociologist as Teacher in a Time of Crisis

Abstract

A recent wave of research promotes the idea that anonymity or deindividuation precipitates collective behavior. Specifically, anonymous individuals are more likely to participate in collective behavior events than people among friends and acquaintances. To reconsider this recent resurgence of a more contemporary contagion theory, we replicate and expand upon Aveni's (1977) study of crowd behavior. Our survey data of crowd and collective behavior participants show that anonymity actually hinders the emergence of collective behavior. Rather, collective behavior participants are more likely to be in small groups rather than isolated individuals. Our data do suggest that one form of anonymity (i.e., anonymity from formal agents of social control) can facilitate the emergence of collective behavior.     

Social network analysis: New ethical approaches through collective reflexivity. Introduction to the special issue of Social Networks

Research in social network analysis (SNA) faces unprecedented ethical challenges today due to both technological developments (‘big’ data) and a growing tendency toward institutionalization of ethics governance. We argue that a suitable response requires a more comprehensive approach to SNA ethics, and we identify two main paths toward this goal. First, we need to recognize the breadth of the subject, no longer limited to anonymity and consent. Second, we need to encourage the active participation and contribution of SNA scholars. We advocate a need for greater reflexivity at both individual and collective levels, whereby researchers can learn from their own and their peers’ experiences, and foster a more ethically ‘virtuous’ approach within the whole SNA community.     

Navigating the ethical maze in disability research: ethical contestations in an African context

Despite changes in how disability is viewed, ethical requirements for disability research have hardly changed. Some ethical clearance procedures, processes and practices still consider persons with disabilities as not able, creating unease among researchers and research participants with disabilities themselves. This paper considers five ethical contestations arising from research in the area of disability in an African context: positionality, vulnerability, signed consent, anonymity, and research committee composition. We argue that ethical requirements in practice are still largely based on a medical model of disability and propose that culturally sensitive social and human rights models should influence disability research ethics.     

To claim or not to claim: Anonymity,symmetric externalities and honesty

In many situations, economic actors submit claims for money which are unverifiable or hard to verify. Examples include claims for a tax return or an insurance payout. This paper investigates what role anonymity and externalities play for the decision of whether to be (dis)honest when making such claims. First, does honest claiming increase when anonymity is removed and unverified claims are made public? We present experimental evidence to this effect. Second, does honest reporting increase when it is public knowledge that claims affect others’ payoffs and claimants’ payoffs are symmetrically affected by others’ claims? We find no such effect. Making claims public and having symmetric externalities together increases honesty, but this effect is driven solely by the reduction in anonymity.     

The Sex Check: The Development of an HIV-Prevention Service to Address the Needs of Latino MSM

The Sex Check is a brief, telephone-delivered, HIV-prevention intervention tailored for individuals who are at high risk of HIV infection or transmission but who are neither reducing their risk on their own nor seeking support for this purpose. Because the intervention is delivered on a one-to-one basis, permits anonymity, is marketed to "men who have sex with men," and is brief, it may be particularly responsive to cultural, structural, and attitudinal barriers to serving Latino MSM. Because many Latino MSM continue to engage in high risk sexual behaviors, developing and testing prevention interventions with this population is a public health priority.     

AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF ALTERNATIVE CAMPAIGN FINANCE SYSTEMS: TRANSPARENCY,DONATIONS, AND POLICY CHOICES

We experimentally study the transparency effect of alternative campaign finance systems on donations, election outcomes, policy choices, and welfare. Three alternatives are considered: one where donors' preferences and donations are unobserved by the candidate and public; one where they are observed by the candidate but not the public; and one where they are observed by all. We label them full anonymity (FA), partial anonymity (PA), and no anonymity (NA), respectively. We find that in NA and PA candidates consistently respond to donations by choosing policies favoring the donors. FA, in contrast, is the most successful in limiting the influence of donations on policy choices. Donors benefit greatly from the possibility of donations whereas social welfare may be harmed in some treatments. To our knowledge, this article is the first to investigate the effect of different campaign finance systems distinguished by their transparency level. (JEL D72)     

Effects of anonymity and experimenter demand on client satisfaction with mental health services

Among the methodological issues associated with the measurement of client satisfaction are those concerning anonymity of response, experimenter demand effects, and reliability of instruments. In this study, 100 inpatients were randomly assigned in a 2 X 2 factorial design; subjects were asked or not asked to sign their names to the CSQ-8 questionnaire and were asked or not asked to "tell it like it is." The reported satisfaction of those given anonymity was significantly lower but there was no effect due to demand. Furthermore, subjects in the anonymity group had lower scores on all 8 items of the questionnaire. A factor analysis of the CSQ-8 revealed one major factor; the internal consistency of the scale was .93. The CSQ-8 was found to be a useful measure of overall client satisfaction but, because ceiling effects are a pervasive problem in client satisfaction research, anonymity should be assured whenever possible.     

Behaviour under the condition of anonymity: a visual analysis

Analysing photographs of abandoned hotel rooms, we forensically classify hotel guests who left their rooms into three ideal types. Goffman’s idea of impression management is central for indicating ideal-type specific behavioural motivations. Under the condition of relative anonymity provided in hotel rooms, the audience for which guests manage impressions is either absent or the guests themselves who construct it. In the case of an audience to be seen as relevant it is either an internalised audience, guiding one’s behaviour, or it is a real audience. We demonstrate that it is possible to classify guests according to forensic analysis of the clues that identify their behaviours as (1) authentic, that is independent from an audience; (2) guided internally by an imagined audience; or (3) influenced by the perception of a real audience. The sociological categories of power and status are used to systematically differentiate behaviours of our three ideal-typical classes of hotel guests.     

INTERVIEW MODE EFFECTS IN SURVEYS OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL USE: A FIELD EXPERIMENT

This research explores the impact of interview mode on respondents'willingness to reveal illicit or undesirable behavior and mechanismsby which interview mode influences response tendencies. A fieldexperiment was designed to control mode effects due to samplingand screening so that the impact of response anonymity (throughuse of self-administered questionnaires ([SAQs]) and socialdistance in the interviewer-respondent relationship (telephonevs. personal communication) could be tested. Respondents aged18–45 were randomly as-signed to interview mode: telephone,face-to-face, or self-administered. Admission of illicit druguse and alcohol use was most likely in the personal mode withSAQs, slightly less likely in personal mode without SAQs, andleast likely in the telephone mode. The magnitude of the modedifferentials was larger for blacks than for whites, and largeramong respondents who are more mistrustful of others. Resultssupport the notion that response effects due to mode of interviewderive, at least in part, from interview mode differences inability to assuage respondents' confidentiality concerns. Greatersocial distance between interviewer and respondent in the telephoneinterview, compared with face-to-face communication, makes itmore difficult for the researcher to make convincing confidentialityguarantees. The response anonymity provided by SAQs also appearsto increase respondents' willingness to reveal sensitive behavior,especially among racial/ethnic minorities.     

Recovery,reinstatement, serenity: The personal account of a compulsive gambler

A lawyer, investment banker, and certified public accountant who committed crimes to support his gambling addiction describes the process of reinstatement after suspension, the feelings of frustration and despair, and the support he received from Gamblers Anonymous.Editor's Note: Adherence to the principles of the Gamblers Anonymous program made it incumbent upon the author to maintain his anonymity for this article.     

Transition,Connection, Disconnection,and Social Media: Examining the Digital Lived Experiences of Transgender Individuals

In light of persistent discrimination, many individuals who are transgender lack a safe space to connect with others. Social media has become a platform for establishing social ties, receiving education, and sharing of resources that may not otherwise be available to individuals on the margins of society. Yet little is understood about the role of social media in the lives of individuals who are transgender. In this qualitative study, the researchers examined the experiences of adults who are transgender (N = 5) who use social media. The current study also explored possible benefits and hindrances of social media for individuals who are transgender. Two main themes emerged: social media as a resource and a path to self and authenticity. The researchers encourage counselors to become familiar with various social networking sites and their privacy settings, and propose using a theoretical framework to guide counseling work with individuals who are transgender to reflect on social media connections and disconnections.     

The practice and perceptions of RRI—A gender perspective

Little is known to date about the practice and perceptions of RRI among researchers in Europe as well as the integration of the gender dimension into everyday RRI practices. This lack was addressed by two large-scale surveys that were launched in the course of the EU-funded MoRRI project (Monitoring the evolution and benefits of RRI, Contract number RTD-B6-PP-00964-2013, Duration 09/2013–03/2018). The analysis shows that the institutional environment positively influences the degree of RRI activities and the general attitudes towards more responsible research and innovation: researchers working in an institutional environment that systematically supports the practice of RRI are more active in RRI practices than researchers who do not rely on such structures. For the gender equality dimension, this means that institutions with a gender equality plan (GEP) in place are more inclined to support female researchers than institutions without such institutional incentives. Furthermore, researchers with experiences in EU-funded projects are more likely to be engaged in RRI activities. Even if female researchers have a stronger inclination to engage with society than their male counterparts, gender competence proves to be the relevant distinguishing criterion. Gender competent researchers are more often involved in other RRI activities.     

Personal reflections on cautions and considerations for navigating the path of grounded theory doctoral theses and dissertations: a long walk through a dark forest

Grounded theory (GT) has been a popularly used qualitative research methodology in the social sciences and has become increasingly popular for doctoral theses and dissertations. Yet, issues such as the changing nature of grounded theory, time constraints, theses advisors, doctoral committee procedures and Institutional Review Board regulations create challenges for doctoral candidates (researchers) who choose to use GT for their dissertations. In this paper, we present the general and specific challenges of using GT for doctoral theses and dissertations by sharing our personal experiences from our Ph.D. programmes in the USA. We conclude by providing practical suggestions for doctoral researchers who are considering using GT for their theses and dissertations.     

Topological aggregation, the case of an infinite population

 The literature on infinite Chichilnisky rules considers two forms of anonymity: a weak and a strong. This note introduces a third form: bounded anonymity. It allows us to prove an infinite analogue of the “Chichilnisky– Heal-resolution” close to the original theorem: a compact parafinite CW-complex X admits a bounded anonymous infinite rule if and only if X is contractible. Furthermore, bounded anonymity is shown to be compatible with the finite and the [0, 1]-continuum version of anonymity and allows the construction of convex means in infinite populations. With X=[0, 1], the set of linear bounded anonymous rules coincides with the set of medial limits. Received: 30 October 1993/Accepted: 22 April 1996