China' s Divorce Trends in the Transition Toward a Market Economy1

Abstract

This study examines the changes in China' s divorce patterns since 1950, identifies major factors responsible for the upsurge of divorces since the 1978 economic reform, and discusses the likely trend and socioeconomic implications. Results indicate that the number of divorces per 1,000 population increased steadily from 0.327 in 1979 to 0.954 in 1998 and the number of divorces per 1,000 married population increased from 0.820 to 1.710 over the same period. This study suggests that China' s divorce rate is likely to increase under the economic transition but the rate of increase will be determined by many factors, including the forthcoming Marriage and Family Law.     

“Once Bitten,Twice Shy? Gender Differences in the Remarriage Decision after a Gray Divorce”

Gray divorces, or divorces at and over the age of 50, are increasing in the United States. This article explores this population's interest in remarrying after a divorce by sex within the context of a prospective, role exit theoretical framework. In‐depth, qualitative interviews with 40 women and 39 men who have experienced a gray divorce were analyzed using grounded theory methodology. There were significant gender differences with respect to receptivity to remarriage among those who had undergone a gray divorce. More specifically, the most common theme expressed by women involved firmly rejecting remarriage as a part of their futures. The remaining themes articulated by women were conditional pro‐remarriage views and then even less commonly, unconditional pro‐remarriage views. In contrast, the most common theme among men was that they remained very open to remarriage, either unconditionally or under specified conditions; only a small number rejected the prospect entirely. These findings highlight the differences in the remarriage decision from both the female and male perspectives for this population.     

A Longitudinal Study of the Long-Term Predictors of China’s Divorce Rate

Abstract

Based on data from the China Statistical Yearbook from 1996 to 2013, this study explores the long-term predictors of China’s divorce rate over recent decades with the longitudinal models incorporating the repeated measure models and long-term change models. The research findings suggest that among the factors researched, the economic development and the time factor are the two most essential predicators explaining the long-term variations in China’ divorce rate from 1996 to 2013. This result provides additional empirical evidence from China as a transitional economy to support the widely accepted assumption that the divorce rate rises with the advance of modernization. On the contrary, the positive effect of women’s empowerment disappeared with the presence of economic development, indicating that over a long period of time, the two factors do not work at the same time, and the economic development may affect the divorce rate independent of the influence of women’s empowerment. It can be implied that despite calls for the revival of Chinese tradition and culture under Xi Jinping’s rule since 2012, China’s divorce rate is expected to continue to rise with further economic development.     

Remarriage after divorce: recent changes and demographic variations

Using data from US Bureau of the Census publications from the decennial censuses and the Bureau's Current Population Reports, the authors analyze remarriage in the US. Among adults who had ended their 1st marriage in divorce, about 3/4 of the elderly men and 2/3 of the elderly women in both 1970 and 1980 were found to be remarried. However, the general decline in remarriage at the younger ages during the 1970s was accentuated among those under 35 years old. Although the proportion remarried among women with graduate school training was the smallest, that proportion declined less during the 1970s than for women in any other educational level. In both 1970 and 1980, the proportion remarried was positively correlated with personal income for men but negatively for women. An estimated 2/3 of those who end their 1st marriage in divorce will eventually remarry while they have young children living with them. During the lifetime of women in their 2nd marriage after their 1st marriage ended in divorce, only 1/3 of their children are born after remarriage, whereas 2/3 are born before their 2nd marriages. During the 1970s, the proportion of currently divorced adults living alone or sharing the homes of relatives diminished, while the proportion living as cohabitants outside marriage rose substantially. It appears as if both the divorce rate and the remarriage rate are approaching a period of relative stability.     

Remarried Men and Remarried Women

The study of remarriage after divorce has by and large been ignored by family sociologists. Previous studies on remarriage focused primarily on the individual's adjustment to or the aftermath of remarriage. Employing 1972-82 General Social Survey data, 1 use regression techniques to investigate the relationship between socioeconomic variables and the state of remarriage, for divorced men and women. I test the hypotheses that for men, education, occupation and income level are positively related to remarriage, while for women these variables are inversely associated with remarriage. As hypothesized, highly educated divorced women are less likely to be remarried, as are divorced women who are occupationally and financially independent. The important factor for divorced women considering remarriage is whether or not they are working. Divorced men, on the other hand, are likely to be remarried when they are older and have higher incomes. Unexpectedly, education is inversely related to remarriage for divorced men.     

Divorce Chinese Style

This study investigated divorce during China's social and economic transformation period from 1970 to 2012. Specifically, the study examined the trend development of divorce and demonstrated how marriage formation type and individual socioeconomic characteristics were associated with the likelihood of divorce across time. Event‐history analysis was applied to longitudinal data from the China Family Panel Studies (2010–2012 waves). The results showed a threefold increase in divorce from the pre‐1990s to the 1990s. Surprisingly, the trend shifted to a plateau toward the 2000s. When cohabitation was in its rapidly diffusing stage in the 1990s, individuals who cohabited prior to marriage had a substantially higher likelihood of divorce. As cohabitation became increasingly common in the 2000s, its effect on divorce weakened. The role of socioeconomic characteristics in divorce also varied across time. This study enriches the knowledge of family dynamics in contemporary Chinese society.     

The Parental Divorce Transition:

The Double ABC-X Model of family stress was used to develop a theoretical model of the parental divorce transition. Interview data from 125 former spouses with children were analyzed to investigate the relationship between divorce-related stressors and post divorce well-being. Divorce-related stressors included economic, housing, legal, parent-child, and former spouse components. Well-being included self-esteem, parenting satisfaction, and economic well-being. Using multivariate regression the results indicated that parents' divorce transition was characterized by major role shifts. For custodial mothers, economic well-being correlated negatively with legal stressors. Other significant independent variables were income during marriage, employment, education, number of children, and her remarriage. For noncustodial fathers, parenting satisfaction was correlated negatively with legal and parent-child stressors.     

Conflict Patterns and Family of Origin Conflict in Newly Initiated Remarriages

ABSTRACT

The poor marriage material hypothesis explains the high divorce rate in remarriages as a function of the qualities of people who have previously been divorced. This study sought to test whether conflict in the family of origin and in the present marriage could substantiate the poor marriage material hypothesis by discriminating between couples in their first marriage versus those in a marriage with a history of divorce. A sample of 66 newlywed married couples, half in first marriages and half in remarriages, were recruited through marriage licenses and student referrals. Family of origin conflict discriminated between first and remarried couples. Namely, wives' exposure to interparental conflict significantly increased the odds that they were presently married to a husband who had previously been divorced. Differences between first and remarried couples' own conflict patterns were largely unremarkable with the exception of remarried couples seeing their partners as being more compliant and unassertive relative to those in first marriages.     

THE ECONOMIC CHOICE IN DIVORCE:

Abstract

Using the NELS data set, this study assessed whether parental involvement in children's education can eliminate the effects of parental divorce and remarriage on the academic achievement of adolescents. The results indicate that consistent effects for divorce emerged using the No-SES Model, both with and without the inclusion of the parental involvement variables. Similarly, consistent effects for remarriage emerged using the SES Model, both with and without the inclusion of the parental involvement variables. The significance of these results is discussed.     

Redivorce Following Remarriage

This paper examines the use of the often quoted remarriage studies done in the 50s by Monahan. It was found that extreme caution should be used in presentations where the redivorce rate is discussed. The current statistics certainly do not paint the bleak picture presented by Monahan. Surprisingly, when 28 current family texts were sampled for their treatment of remarriage, it was found that most do not even address the topic, and of those who do, most present the older and misleading Monahan data. It is suggested in the paper that researchers, educators, and counselors need an accurate view of the risk of remarriage following divorce, since most of those who divorce do remarry. Also, the suggestion was made that the traditional family form may not be in as much of a decline as some report. Most people stay married; of those who divorce, most (68%) have either one child or none, and most remarry.     

Divorce and Mid- and Later Life Families: A Phenomenological Analysis with Implications for Family Life Educators

ABSTRACT

A growing number of mid- and later life individuals and families are experiencing divorce and remarriage. Mid- and later life families are those who have begun to or may have launched their adult children. As a result, these families may include in-laws and grandchildren. Limited research has addressed the potentially unique experiences of these families whose lives are made more complex and complicated by divorce, remarriage, or both. The purpose of this article is to examine, from a phenomenological perspective, the lived experiences of individuals and families experiencing divorce in mid- and later life. In so doing, four case studies are presented that represent four common pathways through divorce and remarriage in mid- and later life: career divorced, seasoned divorced, newly divorced, and interrupted career divorced. Using these case studies and our interpretation of them based on a phenomenological approach, we offer implications for family life educators for improving the delivery of educational services to families facing mid- and later life divorce and remarriage.     

Predictors of Divorce Adjustment: Stressors,Resources, and Definitions

We used data from 208 individuals who divorced during a 17‐year longitudinal study to examine factors that predict adjustment to marital disruption. Using stress and coping theory as a guide, we hypothesized that adjustment would be associated with variables reflecting stressors, resources, and people's definitions of the divorce. Contrary to expectations, we found little evidence that stressors (large declines in per capita income, losing friends, or moving) affected divorce adjustment, except among individuals who were not employed. Adjustment was positively associated with income, dating someone steadily, remarriage, having favorable attitudes toward marital dissolution prior to divorce, and being the partner who initiated the divorce. In addition, older individuals showed some evidence of poorer adjustment than did younger individuals.     

Continued Pursuit of Happily Ever After: Low Barriers to Divorce and Happiness

Throughout the 1970s, a “no-fault revolution” swept through the United States, reducing the legal and economic barriers to divorce. Previous studies have found that these legal changes did at least temporarily increase divorces, and may have been, on average, detrimental to women’s economic well-being. It has also been suggested that reducing the barriers to divorce redistributed power to spouses with better predicted outcomes on the remarriage market. In keeping with this theory, the current study examined men and women ages 25–50 as they transitioned to low-barriers to divorce regimes. My data show that reductions in the barriers to divorce were associated with reductions in women’s happiness, particularly among older women and women with children. Conversely, older men and men with children (these women’s potential partners) reported on average higher happiness after low barriers to divorce. These relationships were found even for individuals who remained married, suggesting that this redistribution of happiness was in part the result of a change in bargaining power within marriages.     

Correlates of Self-Esteem Among College Students Offspring from Divorced Families:

This research examines whether factors found to be relevant to children's adjustment following parental divorce do indeed have a significant relationship to the self-esteem of young adult college students who have experienced parental divorce during childhood or adolescence. These factors include gender, social class, age at the time of parental divorce, remarriage of the custodial mother, the amount of contact between the non-residential father and his offspring, and feelings of closeness between the non-residential father and his offspring. The results of a multiple regression analysis indicate that contact with the non-residential father has a significant impact on the self-esteem of female offspring, whereas the age at the time of parental divorce is the most sigmticant factor contributing to the self-esteem of male offspring. Results also indicate there is no significant difference in self-esteem levels among male and female offspring from divorced families.     

Sinic conundrum: A history of HIV/AIDS in the people's republic of china

China's HIV/AIDS case rate continues to grow despite national and World Health Organization efforts. Reports in Western journals are nearly nonexistent, and what is in print does not provide evidence of the infection's historical progress. I traced progress of the infection since my last report (1991) and based current findings on unobtrusive data [HIV blood screening (assays)] provided by State epidemiology‐prevention stations and on ethnographic interviews conducted with public health officials from the Center for AIDS Surveillance, Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine, and epidemiology personnel in Beijing, Chengdu, Chongqing, and Shanghai during fieldwork in China in 1992 and 1993. Cultural, social, economic, and political factors involved in China's historical attempts to manage a growing HIV case rate are discussed. Together, data reveal a widening geographic and social distribution of the virus over time, which, in conclusion, should now qualify China's HIV status as epidemic.     

Developments in China's Provisions for Postdivorce Relief in the 21st Century and Suggestions for Their Improvement

Since entering the 21st century, China's divorce provisions for postdivorce relief have been substantially modified. Provisions for financial assistance and damages after divorce have been added. Since the 2001 amendments to the Marriage Law of the People's Republic of China, the changes to postdivorce relief show three characteristics: First, a wider range of relief is provided; second, housework is recognized and the homeless after divorce are protected; and third, loyalty to marriage is advocated and the party who commits statutory gross wrongs is obliged to make compensation. We think that some statutory requirements of the current divorce relief measures are so strict that few divorcees, especially women, are relieved with the system. Thus, the legislature should learn from foreign legislative experiences and relax the statutory conditions in accordance with the social reality in China.     

FAMILY STRUCTURE TRANSITIONS AND CHILD ACHIEVEMENT

This article uses prospective data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979 to investigate how children in divorced and never-married-mother families vary in reading and math achievement after parental remarriage. These are compared to children who remain in never-married, divorced, and continuously married families. Results based on growth curve modeling indicate that children remaining in single-parent families resulting from divorce or nonmarital births have lower achievement scores than children from married families. Maternal education and income account for all of the adverse effects of family structure on reading achievement, while maternal education, income, and children's home environment can explain the negative relationship between single parenting and math scores. We conclude that parental remarriage may have more benefits for children than previous studies have suggested.     

Amhara Marriage: The Stability of Divorce*

Le mariage, le divorce et le remariage établissent des distinctions significatives de statut entre les laics et les clercs dans la société rurale Amhara. Les avantages socio-économiques ne peuvent pas rendre compte des différences dans le taux des divorces entre les deux groupes étant donné le fort degré d'homogénéité qui existe parmi ceux-ci. Les satisfactions psychologiques, les contraintes de même que les pressions semblent être comparables chez les laics et les clercs. Dans cet article, l'incidence du divorce n'est pas associéà la détérioration des liens maritaux individuels, mais à la façon dont on extériorise les justifications sociales sur lesquelles les mariages se fondent. Le divorce n'est pas vu ici comme une manifestation d'une guerre des hommes contre les femmes, mais comme un concomitant de l'intentionalité du mariage en tant qu'institution. Marriage, divorce, and remarriage delineate significant status distinctions between the clergy and laity of rural Amhara society. Socio-economic advantages of one group over the other cannot be held accountable for differential divorce rates between the two groups in view of the far-reaching homogeneity that encompasses both. Psychological gratifications, constraints, and pressures appear to be the same in clergy and in laity. In this paper, the incidence of divorce is related not to deterioration of individual marital bonds, but to the playing-out of the societal rationale upon which marriages are based. Divorce is here treated not as a manifestation of the war of men against women, but as a concomitant of the purposive institution of marriage itself.     

FROM HONEYMOON TO DIVORCE: INSTITUTION QUALITY AND FOREIGN INVESTORS' OWNERSHIP CONSOLIDATION IN CHINA

In China, joint ventures (JVs) between foreign investors and Chinese local firms were the most popular form of foreign affiliates before 2001. Over time, with policy space to operate as foreign wholly owned (WOs), many foreign investors in JVs chose to consolidate ownership and turned JVs into their WOs. Here, we examine how institution quality affects foreign investors' JV‐to‐WO ownership consolidation odds. For each province‐year, we construct an institution quality index from the business and judicial quality indicators, and further compute a relative quality index to highlight provincial variations. Using more than 43,000 JVs operating in China's 30 provinces over 1998–2007, we find that increases in institution quality decrease the odds of foreign investors to divorce their Chinese local partners. The odds for foreign investors in JVs to consolidate ownerships are significantly higher if they operate in provinces with relatively weaker institution quality. The odds of foreign investors' JV‐to‐WO decision vary with JVs' local firms being state‐owned enterprises (SOEs) and non‐SOEs, with foreign investors' origins from Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan (HMT) and other regions (Foreign), and with foreign investors' initial equity positions. Our results are not driven by foreign direct investment policy shocks, and are robust to alternative measures of institution quality. (JEL F23, L23)     

Legal access and the incidence of divorce in Canada: asociohistorical analysis

Les tendances à long terme du taux de divorce au Canada ainsi que dans les provinces sont examinées dans le cadre des dispositions de la loi canadienne sur le divorce, des changements d'attitude sociale, et de la structure familiale. On suggère en particulier que l'idée « d'accessibilité juridique« est essentielle pour l'analyse du changement du taux de divorce. Cette notion réfere à l'effet qu'a sur le taux de divorce la nature des raisons légales invoquées ainsi que la facilité ou non d'accès à des cours de divorce. Plus précisément, le taux de divorce au Canada avant la réforme légale de 1968 donne une bien pauvre idée du nombre exact de manages brisés, et ceci à cause des exigences légales quant aux motifs de divorce et à cause du manque de cours de divorce dans certaines provinces. De plus, l'existence d'importants obstacles légaux au divorce a encouragé l'institutionalisation de formes d'évasion parmi ceux qui pensaient à divorcer, y compris les divorces migratoires et les procès frauduleux. Toutefois, l'existence de variations importantes et à long terme entre provinces canadiennes dans le taux de divorce fait ressortir le besoin d'analyses plus poussées des variables sociales, culturelles, et démographiques qui semblent être associées aux variations régionales dans le taux de divorce. Long-term trends in divorce rates in Canada are examined within the framework of Canadian divorce law and of changes in social attitudes and family structure. It is suggested, in particular, that an essential concept in an analysis of the changing incidence of divorce is that of ‘legal access,’ by which is meant the impact on divorce rates of the nature of the legal grounds for divorce, as well as the impact of the provision, or lack of provision, of divorce court facilities. More specifically, Canadian divorce rates prior to the divorce law reforms of 1968 are shown to have provided a very poor indication of the actual rate of marriage breakdown owing to the stringent nature of the legal grounds of divorce and the lack of divorce court facilities in some provinces. Furthermore, the existence of major legal barriers to divorce fostered patterns of institutionalized evasion amongst those seeking divorces including migratory divorces and fraudulent divorce actions. However, the continued existence of large, and long-term, variations in divorce rates between the Canadian provinces highlights the need for further analysis of a wide variety of social, cultural, and demographic variables which appear to be associated with the differential regional incidence of divorce in this country.