Birth weight and mothers' adverse employment change

Low birth weight has been linked at the aggregate level to unemployment rates and at the individual level to subjective distress. We hypothesize that maternal underemployment, including unemployment, involuntary part-time work, and low wage work predicts decreased birth weight. The relationship of birth weight to maternal employment changes during pregnancy was studied prospectively in 1,165 singleton first births in the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth data set. Controlling for other significant risk factors, women who shifted from adequate employment to underemployment had significantly lighter babies. Plausible mediators of this relationship were explored, including prenatal health care, gestational age, and mother's weight gain, with results varying by type of underemployment. Two interactions also suggested that underemployment reduced the beneficial effect of mother's weight gain on birth weight. These findings were partially replicated for low birth weight (< 2,500 grams), indicating the medical significance of the effect.     

Father involvement,child health and maternal health behavior

This paper uses data from the baseline Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study to examine the level and effects of father-involvement on child's birth weight and mother's health behavior during pregnancy (prenatal care, drinking, drug use and smoking). The findings indicate that most fathers, including unwed fathers, are involved with their children at birth and have intentions to remain involved. The effects of father involvement on health and health behavior depend, however, on how the construct is measured. When measured as parent's relationship status (married, cohabiting, romantic or non-romantic), the effects of marriage are beneficial for all but one outcome, the effects of cohabitation are positive for prenatal care only, and the effects of romantic involvement are negative for child's birth weight. When measured as paternity acknowledgement, contributions during pregnancy and intentions to contribute, unmarried father involvement has no effect on child's birth weight, a strong effect on early prenatal care and a variable but overall positive effect on mother's health behaviors. Furthermore, the effects of father involvement do not vary systematically by fathers' earnings potential and psychosocial attributes. While these results support the notion that fathers can influence mothers to maintain or adopt healthy pregnancy behaviors, they do not indicate that father-involvement improves birth outcomes.     

The Labor Market Effects of Sex and Race Discrimination Laws

We study the effects of state sex and race discrimination laws that were passed prior to federal antidiscrimination legislation. State sex discrimination laws targeted discrimination in pay only. Because an equal pay constraint raises the relative price of female labor, we would expect the relative employment of females to decline. We find robust evidence that state equal pay laws for women reduced relative employment of both black women and white women. We also find some evidence of positive effects of race discrimination laws on earnings of blacks relative to whites, although no evidence of employment effects. (JEL J15 , J16 , J18 , J23 )     

How Do Children Matter? A Comparison of Gender Earnings Inequality for Young Adults in the Former East Germany and the Former West Germany

The former Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the former German Democratic Republic (East Germany) differed sharply in their family policies. We follow 1950s and early 1960s birth cohorts from their first jobs to 1989 to see in what ways having children affected earnings for women and men. For the FRG, we find that being a parent had stronger earnings effects (positive for men and negative for women) than in the GDR, with much of this impact mediated by employment hours for women. This does not mean that having children was unimportant for women's and men's earnings in the GDR, but it indicates that the less variable life course led to more society‐wide than individual‐level impact. Further, in the East, some young women balanced family and employment by taking jobs below their qualifications, and this reduced their earnings.     

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN THE VALUATION OF EMPLOYER-PROVIDED HEALTH INSURANCE

We present evidence that accurate estimates of the labor-earning/employer-provided health insurance trade-off must account for two different effects: the heterogeneity of jobs and the endogeneity of health insurance. The size of the trade-off depends on employees' contribution to premiums, health-care needs, and valuation of insurance. We use Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data and instrumental variables/two-stage least squares. On average, workers accept about 16.5% to 20% lower earnings in return for insurance, and married women value insurance by about 3.5 percentage points more than married men, explaining about 3% of the gender-earning differentials. Health insurance does not contribute to the unexplained portion of the gender-pay gap. ( JEL J3, J7, I1)     

The effects of domestic violence during pregnancy on maternal and infant health

The present study examined the impact of domestic violence on maternal and infant health by assessing maternal health during pregnancy and infant health at two months postpartum. Two hundred and two women (68 battered and 134 non-battered) were recruited from the community and completed both pregnancy and 2-month postpartum interviews. Results revealed that domestic violence during pregnancy was associated with numerous health problems for mothers and infants including more health problems during pregnancy, more likelihood of premature labor, later entrance into prenatal care, lower infant birth weight, greater utilization of health care resources, and more prenatal substance use. After income was controlled, the relationship between violence and timing of prenatal care and infant birth weight became nonsignificant. Maternal social support was found to protect against the effects of violence for several health outcomes. The current findings suggest the need for domestic violence screening during pregnancy, as well as clinical interventions for battered, pregnant women in order to prevent serious physical and emotional problems for both mothers and their infants.     

LONG‐RUN EFFECTS OF YOUTH TRAINING PROGRAMS: EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE FROM ARGENTINA

We study the effect of a job training program for low‐income youth in Cordoba, Argentina. The program included life‐skills and vocational training, as well as internships with private sector employers. Participants were allocated by means of a public lottery. We rely on administrative data on formal employment, employment spells, and earnings, to establish the effects of the program in the short term (18 months), but also—exceptionally for programs of this type in Latin America and in developing countries in general—in the medium term (33 months) and in the long term (48 months). The results indicate sizable gains of about 8 percentage points in formal employment in the short term (about 32% higher than the control group), although these effects dissipate in the medium and in the long term. Contrary to previous results for similar programs in the region, the effects are substantially larger for men, although they also seem to fade in the long run. Program participants also exhibit earnings about 40% higher than those in the control group, and an analysis of bounds indicates that these gains result from both higher employment levels and higher wages. The detailed administrative records also allow us to shed some light on the possible mechanisms underlying these effects. A dynamic analysis of employment transitions indicates that the program operated through an increase in the persistence of employment rather than from more frequent entries into employment. The earnings effect and the higher persistence of employment suggest that the program was successful in increasing the human capital of participants, although the transient nature of these results may also reflect better matches from a program‐induced increase in informal contacts or formal intermediation. (JEL J08, J24, J68, O15)     

THE TIMING OF EXEMPTIONS FROM WELFARE WORK REQUIREMENTS AND ITS EFFECTS ON MOTHERS' WORK AND WELFARE RECEIPT AROUND CHILDBIRTH

I quantify the effects of welfare work exemptions on women's labor force participation and welfare receipt. This study, which also examines the age of youngest child (AYC) exemption, is the first to investigate the pregnancy exemption. Between‐state and within‐state variations in exemption length allow me to estimate the heterogeneous effects of each exemption by its timing and strictness. I find that the effects on labor force participation are driven by employment for the pregnancy exemption, inducing relatively stable welfare receipts. In contrast, the effects are driven by unemployment for the AYC exemption, which triggers more reliance on welfare after birth. (JEL I38)     

Women's Housework: New Tests of Time and Money

The author uses variation by the day of week—comparing weekdays to weekends—to reconsider three main explanations for variation in women's housework time. The author predicts that though evidence of gender deviance neutralization (GDN) should be evident across the days of the week, evidence of time constraints and absolute earnings should be most apparent on weekdays. The author tests these hypotheses with the largest sample to date (American Time Use Survey 2003–2012) and careful consideration of the functional form between resources/constraints and housework time. The author finds that all three measures of resources/constraints—relative earnings, absolute earnings, and employment hours—perform as poor predictors of women's housework on weekends. Weekends are when women, regardless of employment status, do gender, but not in the way hypothesized by GDN. On weekdays, women's own employment hours and earnings have negative, but diminishing, effects on their housework time. GDN is not supported.     

The Effect of Private Sector Work Opportunities in Prison on Labor Market Outcomes of the Formerly Incarcerated

This paper examines the effects of a private-sector prison work program called the Prison Industry Enhancement Certification Program (PIECP) on formal unemployment duration, duration of formal employment, and earnings of men and women released from various state prisons between 1996 and 2001. It also investigates the labor market dynamics of formerly incarcerated men and women. The program is found to increase reported earnings and formal employment on the extensive margin, with a stronger impact on the formal employment of women. There is little evidence that it increases formal employment along the intensive margin (i.e., duration of formal employment). Contrary to segmented labor market theories, superior employment (i.e., higher-paying jobs) does not lead to increased job stability. Roughly 92 % of individuals who obtained formal employment in the sample experienced job loss; however, reincarceration rates are too low to explain this fact. An evaluation of labor market dynamics reveals that traditional human capital variables, criminogenic factors, and a few demographic characteristics determine job loss. In addition, black women, single women, and women with more extensive criminal histories face greater barriers in the labor market than their male counterparts.     

The Effects of Unemployment on Prenatal Care Use and Infant Health

Do recessions improve birth outcomes? This study investigated the relationship between unemployment fluctuations, prenatal care utilization and infant health. Analyzing the US Natality Detail Files for the period 1989–1999 aggregated by county, year, and race, I found the overall effects of unemployment to be beneficial but concluded that at least some of the apparent benefits are attributable to the Medicaid “safety net.” In supplementary analyses stratified by socioeconomic status, Medicaid played the largest role among economically disadvantaged (single and less educated) women. Thus, unemployment seems to be good for at least some pregnancies—provided Medicaid steps in.     

DO REEMPLOYMENT PROGRAMS FOR THE UNEMPLOYED WORK FOR YOUTH? EVIDENCE FROM THE GREAT RECESSION IN THE UNITED STATES

We present experimental evidence on the effects of four U.S. reemployment programs for youth unemployment insurance (UI) recipients during the Great Recession. The three programs that emphasized monitoring and service referrals reduced UI receipt but had minimal effects on employment and earnings; these programs mainly induced the early exit of participants. The fourth program, which combined mandatory job counseling with monitoring, caused the largest reductions in UI receipt and clearly increased employment and earnings. Both early participant exits and effective job counseling underlie these impacts. We conclude that policymakers should require job counseling for youth UI recipients during recessions. (JEL J0, J6, H4)     

THE EFFECTS OF JOB RELOCATION ON SPOUSAL CAREERS: EVIDENCE FROM MILITARY CHANGE OF STATION MOVES

We investigate the impact of military job relocation on spousal earnings and employment by creating a unique longitudinal database that tracks over 900,000 military spouses over the period 2001–2012, based on data from two administrative sources—military records on personnel and their dependents, and Social Security earnings records. This database allows us to estimate the effects of military change of station moves controlling for some key observable characteristics of the service‐member and household and controlling for individual spouse fixed effects. We find that military moves cause a substantial decline in spousal earnings in the year of the move, on the order of $2,100, or 14% of average spousal earnings. Moves also increase the likelihood that the spouse has no earnings for the year. We find larger earnings reductions for moves that cross state lines, and for older spouses, male spouses, and those with young children. The career costs persist over time and spouses continue to experience significantly lower earnings 2 years after the move. This persistence, combined with the typical military member experiencing a change of station move every 2 or 3 years, may substantially limit the ability of military spouses to accumulate human capital over time. (JEL H56, R23, J45, J16, J64)     

Path Analysis of Welfare Use: Depression as a Mediating Factor

Path analysis was conducted to determine causal effects of life circumstances on depression and effects of these measures on employment and welfare use. Data were from the Welfare and Self-Sufficiency Survey conducted in a metropolitan county of Kentucky. Direct effects indicate that economic hardships and adverse life events increase depression scores and depression reduces earnings and increases welfare use. Indirect effects of economic hardships and adverse life events, through the mediating effects of depression, reinforce depression??s effects on employment and welfare use. The data include measures of life circumstances and depression scores of low-income women; thereby, permitting a path model that uniquely contributes to knowledge regarding the effects of life circumstances and depression on TANF-eligible women??s employment and welfare use.     

BIRTH ORDER AND RISKY ADOLESCENT BEHAVIOR

It is commonly believed that birth order is an important determinant of success. However, previous studies in this area have failed to provide convincing evidence that birth order is related to test scores, education, or earnings. Using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth–1979, we investigate the association between birth order and adolescent behaviors such as smoking, drinking, marijuana use, sexual activity, and crime. Our estimates show that middle borns and last borns are much more likely to use substances and be sexually active than their firstborn counterparts. These results provide the strongest evidence to date that birth order is related to measurable behaviors. (JEL I12 , J12 , J13 )     

PARENTAL EARNINGS AND CHILDREN'S WELL‐BEING: AN ANALYSIS OF THE SURVEY OF INCOME AND PROGRAM PARTICIPATION MATCHED TO SOCIAL SECURITY ADMINISTRATION EARNINGS DATA

We estimate the association between parental earnings and child well‐being using data from the Survey of Income and Program Participation matched to Social Security Administration earnings records. We use very large samples on a wide variety of measures of child well‐being that are also linked to long histories of parent earnings from administrative records. Consistent with previous studies, we find that the use of longer time averages of parent earnings leads to substantially higher estimated associations compared to using only a single year of parent earnings. Using 7‐year time averages of parent earnings, we show, for example, that a doubling of parent earnings is associated with a reduced probability of a teenager reporting being in poor health by close to 50% and a decrease in the likelihood of a child repeating a grade by 39%. We also examine how the associations vary by the timing of when parental earnings are received during childhood. We find suggestive evidence that parental earnings received during the child's school‐going years (ages 6 to 17) are more strongly associated with college enrollment and children's future earnings as adults than parent earnings received earlier or later in the child's life. (JEL J13, I1, I2)     

“Midwife to Myself”: Birth Narratives among Women Choosing Unassisted Homebirth*

Most pregnant women in the United States today choose a normative physician‐guided pregnancy followed by a medically managed hospital birth. Some, however, choose the care of a midwife during pregnancy and birth, whether in the hospital or, more rarely, at home. Despite growing research on both these paths, a third option chosen by some women has rarely been studied: a planned birth at home with neither a doctor nor a midwife assisting. In this article, I examine the stories told by women in this under‐researched population to consider how they make and explain this highly unusual choice. Analysis of online birth stories and in‐depth interviews with women who planned and had an unassisted homebirth reveal ways in which these women rely on competing discourses of midwifery and medicine to craft a unique sense of agency in birth.     

Culturally-Protective Health Practices

ABSTRACT

Everyday pregnancy care may play an important role in explaining why Mexican immigrant women have positive birth outcomes despite relatively low incomes, low formal education levels, and lack of access to medical care. The paper is based on findings from a qualitative study utilizing in-depth ethnographically-in-formed interviews with 41 Mexican immigrant women in Chicago who had recently given birth. Results indicate that everyday pregnancy care guides maternal behaviors in pregnancy and has important effects on birth weight. Implications for the design of prenatal health care and social services for immigrant women are discussed.     

Grandmothers' influence on mother and child health

This study is based on interviews with grandmothers during July-September 1992-93 in Sudan. The study shows that grandmothers play a significant role in health education and child care within families in the Sudan. Grandmothers, who are not aware of the changes in knowledge, also promote harmful traditions. The authors recommend that health education be directed to elderly women and grandmothers in order to change beliefs and practices that continue to be harmful to children and mothers. Grandmothers were found to give sound advice on child birth, such as movement during labor, breast feeding immediately after birth, and birth intervals of 2-4 years. Grandmothers also gave sound advice on good nutritional practices during pregnancy and use of fermented cereals as weaning foods. Grandmothers recommended use of fenugreek for lactating mothers and use of mint and haharaib for stomach upsets, remedies that are beneficial. Babul is useful after an episiotomy for its antibacterial effects. Harmful advice includes recircumcision after delivery, short birth intervals, and avoidance of contraception. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a major practice that exposes girls and mothers to a greater risk of mortality during childbirth and pregnancy. The sample of grandmothers agreed on the importance of sex education for a girl before marriage. Unfortunately, 57% of grandmothers recommended 14 years as a suitable age for marriage. Grandmothers generally believed wrongly that riding bicycles, drinking coffee, and wearing trousers by girls would increase their sexual desires. Grandmothers explained menstruation to granddaughters and offered home-made remedies for cramps. 45% believed that there were no disadvantages to FGM and recommended FGM at ages 2-5 years. Most viewed fevers as a danger that required a doctor's care. Advice varied among grandmothers according to socioeconomic class.