Grounded theory research: Procedures,canons, and evaluative criteria

Using grounded theory as an example, this paper examines three methodological questions that are generally applicable to all qualitative methods. How should the usual scientific canons be reinterpreted for qualitative research? How should researchers report the procedures and canons used in their research? What evaluative criteria should be used in judging the research products? We propose that the criteria should be adapted to fit the procedures of the method. We demonstrate how this can be done for grounded theory and suggest criteria for evaluating studies following this approach. We argue that other qualitative researchers might be similarly specific about their procedures and evaluative criteria.     

The struggle of Batak Simalungun for their identity in Church organization in Simalungun,Medan, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This research aims to find out the struggle of Batak Simalungun for their identity in church organization in Simalungun. This research uses a qualitative research approach, This qualitative research also uses an ethnographic approach. The qualitative research has at least five approaches and therefore can choose one of the five approaches. The results show about three demands of the Simalungun Batak movement over a special identity of Simalungun also include the church organization environment, where the entire Batak Church led by RMG touches on the original structures of Batak society and culture.     

White Matters: When,Where, and How?

The author reflects on the qualitative research process as both a first‐time researcher and as a white woman doing research on African American men. This includes reflections on the assumption that the primary motivation for the researcher is romantically motivated, a discussion of racist sexism, and the nature of qualitative evidence, in particular that collected in a cross‐race researcher‐participant relationship. The research process and experience reinforces the importance of considering the context of the research when thinking about insider‐outsider positionality.     

Visitation Orders,Family Courts,and Fragile Families

Despite proposals to make parenting time a part of all new child support orders, limited research has examined why some unmarried are more likely than others to establish legal visitation agreements. This mixed‐methods study draws on qualitative data collected from unmarried mothers and fathers living in New York (N = 70) to develop hypotheses about the contexts in which parents set up visitation orders, which are then tested in a large sample of unmarried parents living apart (N = 1,392). Both qualitative and quantitative findings show that disengagement, cooperation, and conflict in the coparenting relationship postseparation influence unmarried parents' decisions about whether to establish a legal visitation agreement. The qualitative data further illustrate how parents' distrust of the court system, preference for informal agreements, and uncertainty about the custody of nonmarital children inform their decisions. The article concludes by considering approaches for helping low‐conflict coparents set up visitation agreements outside of family court.     

On 'False, Collusive Objectification': Becoming Attuned to Self-Censorship, Performance and Interviewer Biases in Qualitative Interviewing

In this paper, we discuss a problem in qualitative interviewing labeled by Bourdieu as 'false, collusive objectification'. As described by Bourdieu, interviews where this occurs appear authentic because they often echo social science concepts and terminology and therefore may please the interviewer; however, they are actually unusable. We evaluate Bourdieu's claim for the existence of 'false' interviews in light of the predominant postmodern position in qualitative research, offer examples from our own research on people diagnosed with mental illness and raise the issue of whether, when and how qualitative researchers should concern themselves with the shortcomings of interviews. We conclude with suggestions derived from Bourdieu's view on how to address the problem he described.     

Medical sociology: some tensions among theory, method, and substance

Why is it that quantitative and qualitative researchers on health issues often have divergent findings and conclusions? Exploration of such differences can be a useful way of bringing separate intellectual enclaves in medical sociology together and also can stimulate future inquiries. Some differences can be resolved by more precise definitions, by comparable frequency and timing of measurement, and by careful evaluation of meaning contexts. The triangulation of methods, using diaries as a bridge between surveys and qualitative measurement, offers particular promise. Improved theory on the relationships of method to data, and more attention to behavioral sequences and the social context of measurement, can serve as a stimulant to innovative solutions.     

Basil Bernstein: Theory,models and the question of method

The purpose of this article is to address the interpretive synthesis of qualitative research. The article discusses the potential to develop a ‘meta-interpretation’ approach which attempts to maintain an interpretive epistemology congruent with the majority of primary qualitative research. The article identifies and discusses a range of issues in the synthesis of interpretive qualitative research (objectivity, evaluation of studies, sampling, context, interpretation and integrity) that emerge from a review of nine research methods involving synthesis and a broader review of the research synthesis literature. Seven fundamental features of meta-interpretation are outlined and the meta-interpretation procedure is presented. In conclu-sion, the aims of synthesis procedures in general and meta-interpretation in particular are discussed.     

Reintegrating Theories,Methods, and Historical Analysis in Teaching Sociology

We discuss ways of bringing theory and methods into conversation with each other within courses and across the sociology curriculum. Theory is often taught completely separately from research methods, which in turn are simplistically divided into quantitative and qualitative. To counter this fragmented approach to the discipline we discuss two major paradigms, a social-forces paradigm often linked to quantitative research and an interpretive paradigm often linked to qualitative inquiry. But at a deeper level both paradigms require an understanding of historical context. The relationship between these two paradigms and more familiar categories of theory such as "functionalism" and "conflict theories" is not straightforward. We conclude the discussion by describing classroom-tested strategies that help students explore the complexity of the linkages between theories and empirical inquiry.     

Computer software and qualitative analysis: Trends,issues and resources

Developments during the 1990s in the use of computer software for qualitative data analysis are surveyed. Salient trends are identified as are wider issues associated with software use. Also listed are some of the resources now available to potential and actual users of computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS).     

ICONOCLASM VERSUS INNOVATION: BUILDING A SCIENCE OF FAMILY THERAPY-COMMENTS ON MOON, DILLON, AND SPRENKLE

We dispute Moon, Dillon, and Sprenkle's (1990) claims regarding the unique advantages of qualitative methods and inherent limitations of traditional quantitative approaches for addressing the needs of family therapy research. We support the role of qualitative research as a generative phase in theory development and concur that exclusive allegiance to a standard set of research methods may limit our attention to important family therapy processes. However, we also assert the need to document generalizability of informal observations through controlled procedures using appropriate quantitative techniques. Both ethical and practical considerations demand that we document treatment efficacy based on a science of family therapy.     

Applicability of standards for evaluations of educational programs, projects and materials in an international setting: Qualitative research

Qualitative studies are much more the practice in Europe and increasingly elsewhere than in the United States. For an international audience, therefore, there needs to be much greater emphasis on qualitative techniques than there is in the standards report. The most difficult ethical problem arises from the conflict between the right to privacy of research subjects and the right to know of audiences. By its nature, qualitative research focuses on the particular, the detailed analysis of the specific incident. It is therefore often difficult to conceal the identity of the individual organisations and people concerned. Even a confidential report might work to the detriment of the subjects studied. Published reports pose the same problem. Have subjects the right to have material they believe to their disadvantage excised from a report even if that renders the report valueless? There are two technical points in the standards document that should be amplified. The first concerns the verification of data. We need to specify procedures to ensure credibility for qualitative studies. The second concern is the specification of quantitative techniques for the analysis of qualitative data. The statement in the standards document is too weak. We need to define much more clearly the steps that should be taken to ensure that qualitative data can be tested rigorously. Finally, there is the problem of collusion, the danger that the qualitative evaluators will select from their material the data which are in conformity with their own predilictions or presuppositions, the expectations of their audience, or the requirements of their sponsors. This problem may be acute in some parts of the world. To be of maximum international value, the standards report needs to be extended and to pay much greater attention to problems arising with qualitative evaluation.     

Wages,union membership,and public sector bargaining legislation: Simultaneous equations with an ordinal qualitative variable

A simultaneous equations model of teachers’ wages and unionization is constructed. The exogenous impact of collective bargaining legislation is captured by conditioning the wage-union system on an ordinal qualitative variable. A new estimation method involving N-chotomous probit and two-stage least squares is developed. The estimation results are consistent with a private interest theory of regulation, predicting that legislators will avoid direct subsidization of teacher wages. By comparison it is also shown that a conventional dummy variable specification of the qualitative legislative outcomes will yield misleading results. The authors gratefully acknowledge the helpful comments of John Addison, Cletus Coughlin, and Robert P. Trost.     

Investigating the Relationship Between Real Estate Agents,Segregation, and House Prices: Steering and Upselling in New York State

This article leverages a unique data set, recently developed regression methods, and qualitative interviews to investigate the multiple ways real estate agents produce housing inequality. We find that the clustering of agents in and around certain neighborhoods correlates positively with house prices. Our results also show a significant relationship between agent concentration and racial segregation. Our qualitative data reveal how agents engage in steering and upselling. The findings enhance our understanding of mechanisms in the housing market, and provide more empirical clarity on the role real estate agents play in asset and place inequality.     

Compelling Evidence: Research Methods,HIV/AIDS,and Politics in Papua,Indonesia

Increasing calls for an evidence-based public health (EBPH) rely on forms of quantitative evidence to decide HIV/AIDS interventions. A major criticism of this method is it downplays the significance of experiential, cultural or political facets of HIV/AIDS. We apply the concept of ‘rendering technical’ to explore the relationship between methods used in HIV/AIDS research in Papua, Indonesia and current socioeconomic conditions. We analysed research methods used in sixty-two HIV/AIDS studies, assessed presentations at an international AIDS conference, and conducted ethnographic research in Papua. Nation-wide EBPH initiatives are implemented in Papua, yet there remains a critical mass of qualitative ethnographic studies carried out by indigenous scholars emphasising experiences of persons and culture, often within a colonial or post-colonial framework. We argue these studies partially counter approaches which render technical complex realities. In political conditions where indigenous minorities suffer inequities, qualitative ethnographic research may yield critical kinds of evidence, potentially contributing to more nuanced decision-making around HIV.     

A qualitative study of intimate partner violence universal screening by family therapy interns: implications for practice, research, training, and supervision

Although a few family therapy researchers and clinicians have urged universal screening for intimate partner violence (IPV), how screening is implemented-and, in particular, client and therapist response to screening-is vaguely defined and largely untested. This qualitative study examined the dilemmas experienced by couples and family therapy interns when implementing universal screening for IPV in an outpatient clinic setting. Twenty-two graduate students in a COAMFTE-accredited program were interviewed using qualitative research methods grounded in phenomenology. Three domains, 7 main themes, and 26 subthemes were identified. The three domains that emerged in this study include (a) therapist practice of universal screening, (b) client response to universal screening, and (c) therapist response to universal screening. Implications for practice, research, training, and supervision are discussed.     

Navigating Intersecting Identities,Self-Representation,and Relationships: A Qualitative Study with Trans Sex Workers Living and Working in Los Angeles,CA

This qualitative research study highlights the lived experiences and voices of diverse trans sex workers who are living and working in Los Angeles, California. Informed by transgender theory, feminist intersectionality theory, and standpoint feminist theoretical approaches to research, this study uses life history case studies, qualitative interactive interviews, and a life timeline approach with six trans sex workers living and working in various aspects of the sex trade in Los Angeles. This article focuses on the unique experiences of trans sex workers and examines how the intersectional identities of trans sex workers and the institutional forces they come into contact with shape the strengths, challenges, and empowering aspects related to their work in the sex trade, and their individual approaches to navigating personal and professional relationships/roles, maintaining quality of life, and resisting stereotypes and stigma.     

Time,Work, and Family Life: Reconceptualizing Gendered Time Patterns Through the Case of Children’s Organized Activities1

This article considers the understudied phenomenon of children’s organized leisure as it relates to the division of labor in the family. Using both quantitative and qualitative data, we first ask whether the labor entailed by children’s organized leisure is divided evenly between mothers and fathers. Both data sets indicate that this is not the case, with the majority of the work falling to mothers; they also indicate that at least some employed mothers face a tradeoff between time devoted to paid work and time devoted to facilitating their children’s leisure. Subsequently, we consider key qualitative aspects of these leisure activities, including deadline sensitivity, authority over scheduling, and degree of predictability. These factors, we find, serve to exacerbate the inequity of the allocation of responsibility between mothers and fathers. We conclude by suggesting that organized leisure has become an important part of the familial landscape and thus warrants further attention. We also suggest that research on the gender division of labor would be enhanced in important ways by greater attention to qualitative dimensions of time use. Researchers should not simply assume that “an hour is an hour.”     

MEASUREMENT ERROR IN MACROECONOMIC DATA AND ECONOMICS RESEARCH: DATA REVISIONS,GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT,AND GROSS DOMESTIC INCOME

We use a preanalysis plan to analyze the effect of measurement error on economics research using the fact that the Bureau of Economic Analysis both revises its gross domestic product (GDP) data and also publishes a second, theoretically identical estimate of U.S. output that only differs from GDP due to measurement error: gross domestic income (GDI). Using a sample of 23 models published in top economics journals, we find that reestimating models using revised GDP always gives the same qualitative result as the original publication. Estimating models using GDI instead of GDP gives a different qualitative result for three of 23 models (13%). (JEL C80, C82, E01)